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THE RED RIVER COUNTRY, 

HUDSON'S BAY AND NORTH-WEST 

TERRITORIES, 



CONSIDERED 



IN RELATION TO CANADA 



THE 
EED RIVER COUNTRY, 

HUDSON'S BAY & NORTH-WEST 

TERRITORIES, 

CONSIDERED 

IN KELATION TO CANADA, 



WITH THE LAST REPORT OF S. J. DAWSON, ESQUIRE, C. E., ON THE LINE OF ROUTE 
BETWEEN LAKE SUPERIOR AND THE RED RIVER SETTLEMENT. 



ILLUSTRATED BY A MAP. f § 

% 'V: 



BY ALEX. J. RUSSELL, C. E., 

INSPECTOR OF CROWN TIMBER AGENCIES, CANADA EAST AND WEST. 



OTTAWA: 

PUBLISHED BY G. E. DESBARATS 
1869. 



K -. 



Entered, according to Act of Parliament of Canada, in the year One Thousand E"ight Hundred 

and Sixty-nine, 

BY GEORGE E. DESBARATS, 

in the Office of tlte Minister of Agriculture. 



PRINTED BY THE 
^^ GLOBE PRINTING COMPANY, 
/ TORONTO, 



PREFACE 



This Pamphlet is intended to present such a summary of the* 
information, given by different writers, respecting the Eed Eiver. 
Hudson's Bay and North-West Territories, arranged under their 
natural geographical divisions, as may be sufficient to give a general 
view of their character and comparative- value to Canada. 

It will be seen by the Table of Contents that I have endeavoured 
to present a practical view of the reasons why we require these 
Territories, or part of them; also, of our means of maintaining 
communication with them, and of the comparative superiority of 
the routes through our own Territory as highways for the future 
commerce of the interior, and for communication with the Pacific 
Provinces. 

A. J. EUSSELL. 

Ottawa, 1868. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Subjects to "be considered, indicated. — Total extent of Hudson's Bay and North- 
West Territories. — They resemble Russia in Europe. — Canada, with them 
added to it, will much exceed European Russia in extent, equal it in fertil- 
ity, and much exceed it in maritime advantages — which have- been greatly 
increased by Confederation with the Eastern Provinces. — Great increase of 
shipping and seamen thereby. — Importance of adjoining territories to Canada. 
— Evil of undervaluing even inferior territories. — Territories to be con- 
sidered, classified 1 



CHAPTER II. 

EAST MAIN, OR THE PENINSULA OF LABRADOR. • 

Extent. — Parts appertaining to Canada, Newfoundland, and Hudson's Bay 
Company. — Early discovery of it. — Physical Character. — "Wooded and 
barren parts — Resembles Lapland. — Vegetables grow in south parts only. — 
Main Factory. — Hamilton Inlet; farm there. — Valuable fisheries on Atlantic 
coast. — Less so on west coast, except for seals 6 



CHAPTER III. 

south Hudson's bay territory. 

Extent. — Physical character. — Broad Silurian Plain around Hudson's Bay with 
clay soil. — Rocky Laurentian formation covers southern and western half 
after passing through Canada. — Laurentide Range described. — Declines in 
height northward. — Favorable passage through it for Railway to Red 
River. — Climate at York Factory. — Cultivation at Albany and Moose Forts, 
barley, potatoes and vegetables; also, at Posts of Henly, Martin's Falls, 
Osnaburg, on Albany River and Lac Seule, with oats and wheat at 
New Brunswick House, on Moose River. — Seasons at Martin's Falls. — 
Cultivation at Norway House, Lake Winnipeg, and of wheat and Indian 
corn at Fort Alexander and Lake of the woods. — Boundary of Silurian Basin 






Vlll. 

of Hudson's Bay. — Fertile belt and good climate for wheat on Rainy 
River. — Wheat and Indian corn at Islington. — Climate of south part equal 
to Lower Canada for cultivation. — South half of this section equal to Finland 
for cultivation, and twice as large. — Has timber of value and rich 
fisheries. — Water communication to Hudson's Bay. — Ultimate value of this 
territory. — Errors through prejudice in such matters 



CHAPTER IV. 

north Hudson's bay territory, or barren ground. 

Boundaries and extent. — Valueless. — Extreme barrenness. — Arctic vegetation. — 
Reindeer and Musk Ox. — Possible metallic wealth 21 

CHAPTER V. 

NORTH 3l'KENZIE RIVER COUNTRY. 

Extent. — Physical character. — Severe climate. — Fertile soil. — Coal and tim- 
ber. — Crops and temperature at Fort Simpson. — Barley, &c. — South half 
equal to Vologda, in Russia, in extent and for cultivation. — River McKen- 
zie. — Posfnble value of its navigation to Arctic whale fisheries. — Sir Alex. 
Mc Kenzie's voyage in discovery of it. — Great abundance of lignite coal. — 
Probable future value of this territory. — Products and exports of Vologda 
and Archangel 22 



CHAPTER VI. 

FELLY RIVER AND FOUNTAIN COUNTRY. 

Extent and physical character resemble Sweden and Norway, but United 
States own the coast. — Alpine character, Rocky Mountains and other 
ranges impregnable as a barrier. — Great elevation of interior and extreme 
cold of winter, but summer sufficient for growth of barley throughout. — 
Temperatures at Fort Youcan, Pelly's Banks, and Sitka compared, and 
Sitka with Montreal. — Humid and temperate climate of coast. — Better a 
little inland and in south part. — Explorations there.— Tracts of good 
land. — Indian cultivation. — Immense coal bed. — Abundance of salmon. — 
Rich gold fi el ds, and valual >le timber forests 26 



CHAPTER VII. 

CENTRAL rilAIRIE COUNTRY, OR RED RIVER, SASKATCHEWAN AND PEACE RIVER 

TERRITORY. 

Position and extent. — Suitableness for cultivation equal to Canada. — Import- 
ance of it to Canada. — Topographical character.— -Is part of great central 
plain of Silurian and more recent formations. — Prevalence of limestone- 



IX. 

along ea^t side and in Rocky Mountains. — Sir Rodk. Murchison's opinion. — 
Vast beds of lignite coal' extending along the base of the mountains. — 
Form and natural divisions by river systems, and their areas. — General 
features as to elevation. — Gradual ascent of plain to Rocky Mountains. — 
Character and elevation of them. — Glacier nucleus at sources of Saskatche- 
wan, Athabasca and River Columbia. — Height of the interior. — Is an ele- 
vated basin, bounded on three sides by higher grounds. — Is a thousand feet 
lower than U.S. territory adjoining. — Prairie lands prevail over woods in 
south parts, and woods over prairie in north 30 



CHAPTER VIII. 

CENTRAL PRAIRIE COUNTRY CONTINUED — LAKE AND RIVER WINNIPEG, LAKE OF 
THE WOODS, RED RIVER, AND COUNTRY BETWEEN THEM. 

Lake "Winnipeg, position, dimensions and elevation. — Divides Silurian and 
Laurentian formations. — Character of its navigation and navigable extent 
of tributaries connected with it. — River Winnipeg, extent. — Equal to the 
Rhine in volume. — Lake of the Woods, — Rough country below it on River 
Winnipeg. — Fertile patches.-*— Fort Alexander in large fertile tract at mouth. — 
Flat country between Lake of the Woods and Red River. — Extensive shal- 
low marshes near the lake ; are undrained prairies. — Descent to Red River. — 
Country generally marshy. — Wooded till near it. — Red River. — Length. — 
Navigation. — Rich alluvial prairie — far on each side. — Timber along its 
banks 38 



CHAPTER IX. 

CENTRAL PRAIRIE COUNTRY CONTINUED — RIVER ASSINIBOINE — INFERTILE 
REGION ON ITS BRANCHES, THE SOURIS AND QU'APPELLE. 

River Assiniboine. — Description of its course. — Small volume of it and its 
tributaries, Souris and Qu'Appelle, and the cause. Great Infertile Region 
on Souris and Qu'Appelle, generally destitute of wood. Has apparently ex- 
tensive, partly wooded, and fertile tracts in it. — Description of them 42. 



CHAPTER X. 

CENTRAL PRAIRIE COUNTRY CONTINUED — FERTILE REGION ON THE ASSINIBOINE. 

Rich alluvial prairie of Red River, extends 70 miles up the Assiniboine to 
Sand Hills. — Fertile land above them on right hand, and infertile on left, 
for 150 miles up. — Then rich and beautiful country on both sides of vast 
extent and partially wooded, reaching north to wooded country near Main 
Saskatchewan, and from Riding and Duck Mountains westward, to and over 
the Touchwood Hills, described in detail. — It joins great fertile region on 
Main and North Branch of Saskatchewan 46 






CHAPTER XL 

CENTRAL PRAIRIE COUNTRY CONTINUED — LAKES MANITOBAH AND WINEPEGOOS, 
RED DEER AND SWAN RIVER, RIDING, DUCK, AND PORCUPINE MOUNTAINS. 

Lakes Manitobah and Winepegoos. — Position and extent. — Outlet little 
Saskatchewan. — Peninsula between them and Lake Winnipeg. — Wooded, 
Marshy, little known. — Country around the lakes, chiefly wooded. — Red 
Deer River. — Fertile wooded country. — Swan River. — Rich prairie land on 
it described. — Riding, Duck and Porcupine Mountains. — Position. — Extent. — 
Elevation and soil. — Extensive inland navigation through Lakes Manitobah 
and Winepegoos , 49 



CHAPTER XII. 

CENTRAL PRAIRIE COUNTRY CONTINUED — RIVER SASKATCHEWAN AND ITS 

COUNTRY. 

River Saskatchewan. — Course. — Length. — Area .drained. — Volume, compared 
with European rivers. — River, and country on it, described in detail 
upwards. — Mouth. — Grand Rapids. — Cedar Lake. — Low marshy country. — 
Pasquia, Pas Mission. — Cumberland House. — Excellent land to great extent. — 
Fort a la Corne. — Rich, mixed and wooded and prairie country southward to 
the Assiniboine of vast extent. — Carrot River 53 



CHAPTER XIII. 

SOUTH BRANCH OF THE SASKATCHEWAN. 

Dimensions and current at Forks. — Rich land and abundent woods continue. — 
Changes to light treeless prairie at 130 miles up from Forks. — At 210 miles 
the Elbow in Great Infertile Region. — Rich tract at Moose Woods, — Thunder 
Breeding Mountain. — Eyebrow Mountains and Cypress Hills. — Infertile for 
500 miles, with some exceptions. — Description by Captain Palliser. — Red 
Deer Fork, extent. — Fertile country on upper half; coal on it. — South 
Saskatchewan, navigable up to this by steamers. — Fertile and generally 
wooded country towards Rocky Mountains, described. — Rich winter pastur- 
age on great extent of Saskatchewan, and little snow 57 



CHAPTER XIV. 

NORTH BRANCH OF THE SASKATCHEWAN. 

Superior fertility of country on North Branch of Saskatchewan and the Battle 
River throughout. — Rich prairie, interspersed with wood. Thick wood 
country towards Rocky Mountains, and coal. — Detailed description 61 



XI 

CHAPTER XV. 

NAVIGATION OF THE SASKATCHEWAN. 

Navigable from head of Grand Rapids, near Lake Winnipeg, to Torbern's 
Falls. — Above theni to Cole's Falls for steamers. — No interruption thence to 
Edmonton, and probably thence to near Rocky Mountains. — Compared with 
the Rhone and Rhine and Ohio 63 



CHAPTER XVI. 

PROPORTION OF FERTILE LANDS ON SOUTH HALF OF CENTRAL PRAIRIE COUNTRY. 

Capt. Palliser's estimate of proportion of fertile and arable and infertile 
lands explored, and description. — Is limited to country south of line of 
strong woods. — Does not include north half of central prairie country. — 
Finds fertile land equal to three times the size of Upper Canada from 
Kingston to Sarnia. — Great infertile region. — Difference of opinion as to its 
value. — Compared with " Perpetual Steppes" of Russia 65 



CHAPTER XVII. 

CENTRAL PRAIRIE COUNTRY — NORTH HALF, BEAVER RIVER. 

Beaver River, length of course. — Part only in this territory — Drains part of 
the same Silurian plain as the Saskatchewan — Same formation and soil, but 
with little prairie. — Cultivation. — Rich fisheries 68 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

RIVER ATHABASCA AND COUNTRY. 

River Athabasca. — Source in mountains. — Course, length. — Majestic stream. — 
Fluid Bitumen. — Mr. Pond's garden. — Limestone prevalent and bitumen. — 
Lignite coal. — Prairies interspersed continuously. — Extracts of D. Thomp- 
son's journal describing country and climate. — River Athabasca and Pem- 
bina. — Rich soil. — Rich coal bed on Pembina. — Beautiful scene and prairie 
ground at Methy Portage 69 



CHAPTER XIX. 

PEACE RIVER. 

Peace River source beyond the Rocky Mountains. — Course, length. — Is main 
branch of McKenzie. — Delta and country up to falls generally wooded 
and low. — Extensive prairies each side.— Higher above the falls, good 






Xll 

soil. — Character of river, deep.— And high plain country. — Beautiful 
meadows. — Early spring. — Animals and woods described by McKenzie in 
L792. — D. Thompson's meteorological observations, 1803. — Favorable cli- 
mate. — Prairies and rich soil towards Rocky Mountains. — Limestone 
prevalent in river bed and mountains. — Heavy woods. — Description of 
73 



CHAPTER XX. 

SLAVE RIVER, HAY RIVER, AND RIVER OF TEE MOUNTAINS. 

Slave River is main McKenzie R. — Touches N.E. corner of central Prairie 
country. — Rich black mould with heavy woods towards river. — Rich pasture 
plains behind. — Countr}'- said to be suitable for farming, but cold. — Hay 
River on north boundary assumed for Central Prairie country. — Its branches. 
— Agreeable mixture of prairie and woodlands frequented by vast bands of 
Buffaloes. — River of the Mountains. — Traverses Rocky Mountains and 
N.W. corner of this section. — Limestone country. — Cultivated crops at 
Fort Liard, lat. 60°N., barley, oats, wheat and pototoes 77 



CHAPTER XXI. 

CLIMATE OF CENTRAL PRAIRIE COUNTRY— FITNESS FOR CULTIVATION— CROPS 

RAISED. 

General observations. — Increase of heat towards Pacific— Great extremes in 
interior. — Absence of extremes on Pacific. — Temperature at various points 
compared. — Comparative Table of monthly means of several places in 
central Prairie country and Canada and Maritime provinces, for seven sum- 
mer and five winter months. — Climate of north and south Saskatchewan. — 
Depth of snow, various parts. — Valuable summer heat and favorable surface 
and soil for cultivation. — Extraordinary wheat crops of Red River and Assini- 
boine. — Other crops there 78 



CHAPTER XXII. 

COAL, PETROLEUM, AND BUILDING MATERIAL. 

Future supply of building timber considered. — Wood abundant in north 
parts. — Less so in south. — Forests on Lake and River Winnipeg, Riding 
• Mountain range and on head waters of Saskatchewan. — Wood sufficient at 
present in valleys of streams, &c. — Kinds and quality of it considered. — 
Peat. — Lignite coal and bitumen. — Various localities where they abound. — 
Comparative table of calorific values of European lignites, peat, woods 
and Newcastle coal , . . 87 



Xlll 

CHAPTER XXIII. 

INDUCEMENTS OFFERED BY PRAIRIE LANDS TO SETTLERS. 

Saving of the time and labor lost in clearing land of timber stumps and 
Stones. — Cost of that estimated. — Great scope for cultivation, and unlimited 
hay and pasture at commencement to settlers. — Open for extension of 
settlement everywhere without the heavy cost of grubbing roads through 
woods necessary in Canada 95 

CHAPTER XXIV. 

WHY WE REQUIRE THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORIES. 

Because our own vacant lands are inadequate in quantity and quality to 
receive continued immigration on a large scale. — To give ns prairie lands 
for those who prefer them. — To save our timber forests from unnecessary 
rapid destruction. — To extend our commerce and manufactures, and give 
increased employment for shipping. — Interest of the Maritime Provinces in 
this 98 



CHAPTER XXY. 

OUR VACANT TERRITORIES AND SETTLING REGIONS IN CANADA, CONSIDERED. 

1. The Ottawa Country and Ottawa and Huron Territory, considered in detail. 
2. The North Shore of Lake Huron. 3. St. Maurice Territory. 4. Saguenay 
Territory. 5. Eastern Townships. 6. South Shore below Quebec. 7. Bona- 
venture, Gaspe and Restigouche,' including part in New Brunswick. — 
Unsuitable to attract and receive extensive immigration. — Value for native 
enterprise, from mineral and other resources 99 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

VALUE OF TIMBER FORESTS AND LUMBER TRADE TO THE PROVINCES, CON- 
SIDERED. 

Estimated annual outlay in lumber trade in Upper and Lower Canada. — Great 
expenditure for farm produce and labor. — Encourages settlement by great 
demand and high prices. — Gives employment and trade in shipping ports, 
and much freight for shipping. — Forms chief remittance to Europe. — 
Exceeds in value all other real products of Canada exported Ill 



CHAPTER XXVII. 

ROUTES TO THE RED RIVER COUNTRY CONSIDERED AND COMPARED. 

Route by Sea and Hudson's Bay. — Dog Lake and Hudson's Bay Company. — 
Canoe Route noV being opened and improved, described in detail 117 






XIV 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 

ULTIMATE CANAL AND RAILROAD COMBINED ROUTES TO RAINY LAKE AND RED 
RIVER, BY STURGEON LAKE AND BY RIVIERE LA SEINE. 

Description in detail.— Superior character of water communication. — Cost of 
cannalling lakes and rivers compared with that of railways 123 



CHAPTER XXIX. 

COMPARISON OF SEVERAL KNOWN AND PROPOSED ROUTES TO RED RIVER, INCLUD- 
ING THE FOREGOING. 

Synoptic Table of lengths and description. — Estimated cost of movement of 
freight by each 1 33 



CHAPTER XXX. 

DIRECT INTERIOR RAILWAY ROUTE BY THE OTTAWA FROM MONTREAL TO RED RIVER. 

Ultimate utility of it to interior. — Habitable country in connexion with 
Ottawa Canal 137 



CHAPTER XXXI. 

ROUTE TO THE PACIFIC BY RED RIVER AND BRITISH COLUMBIA. 

Described and compared with other routes 143 

CHAPTER XXXII. 

MUTUAL IMPORTANCE OF UNION OF CANADA AND BRITISH COLUMBIA, AND OPEN- 
ING OF INTERIOR ROUTE OF COMMUNICATION. 

Command of the traffic of the interior would be secured to the Pacific and 
Atlantic Provinces. — Distance from Liverpool to Chinese ports shorter than 
by American Pacific Railway, and transport cheaper, being more by water. — 
Importance of Ottawa Canal in reducing distance* and cost of transport to 
British and American States and Territories and the Pacific 147 



XV 

CHAPTER XXXIII. 

INTERESTS OF CANADA, THE HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY AND THE INDIANS, COULD 

BE COMBINED. 

Charter of the Hudson's Bay Company does not validly cover the territory 
we desire, though their lease of Indian Territories does, while it lasts. — 
That Territory is still the property of the Crown and the Indians. — Com- 
pany's occupation creditable to them and beneficial generally. — Final ad- 
vantage of liberal arrangement with them and with the Indians, especially 
for the care and protection of the latter 150 



CHAPTER XXXIV. 

COMPARATIVE VALUE OP THE SEVERAL SECTIONS OF TERRITORY TO CANADA ; 

AND CONCLUSION 155 



INDEX OE SUBJECTS 

IN REPORT OX THE LINE OF ROUTE BETWEEN LAKE SUPERIOR AND THE 

RED RIVER SETTLEMENT. 

PAGE. 

Red River Expedition (reference to) 161 

Lake Superior Section 165 

Lake Region 171 

Lake of the Woods Division 178 

Fort Garry Section 179 

Estimate Cost of Works 182 

Probable Traffic . ........184 

Means of Transport 185 

Resources ; Timber, Minerals, &c 189 

Other methods of opening communication .190 

System of work by contract or otherwise :•■: 192 

Indian Element 194 

Agricultural Resources 198 

The Work of Last Summer 200 

Mr. J. W. Bridgland's Report (reference to) 201 






THE RED RIVER COUNTRY, 
HUDSON'S BAY & NORTH-WEST TERRITORIES, 

CONSIDERED IN RELATION TO CANADA. 
CHAPTER I. 

INTRODUCTION. 

About two years ago an eminent Canadian statesman told us 
that Her Majesty had been graciously pleased to express her 
willingness to consent to the acquisition, by Canada, of all the 
great northern and north-west territories of British North America. 
Since then the " British North America Act" has been passed, 
erecting the Provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick 
into the "Dominion of Canada," and providing for the union of 
these territories with it, by Her Majesty, on an Address from the 
Parliament of Canada, expressing conditions she may approve of; 
and both Houses of Parliament of the Dominion have addressed 
Her Majesty praying her action accordingly. 

As paying any just claim of the Hudson's Bay Company for 
any interest or right of property, that may be acquired from them, 
will be a condition in the transaction, it is desirable that we should 
endeavour to form a correct estimate of the value of these terri- 
tories to us. 

In doing so we have to consider their extent and character — and 
what use we can make of them ; — to inquire if we need them or 
any part of them, and for what purposes ; and of what importance 
ultimately they may be to us as respects the great objects aimed at 
by the Confederation we have entered into. 

We have also to consider what is the best way of getting in to 
them ; if we can have such a way on our own ground and at all 
seasons of the year, and if the ways of communication through 
our own ground will be the best for the freight and travel of these 
territories. 

These heads cover a wide range of matter. Without professing 
to enter fully into them, we may take a brief glance at the subjects 
of them, and endeavor to put a few facts together as to what is 
known of this great northern part of the continent of America, of 
which it seems destined that we are to have the control. 
1 



If we include all the vast region heretofore held by the Hudson's 
Bay Company, alike under its charter and its lease of Indian terri- 
tory, which has not been renewed since its expiration in 1859, the 
extent is very great indeed. It embraces all the northern part of 
this continent, from the boundary of Labrador to that of Eussian 
America, lying north of Canada, the United States and British 
Columbia. It is three thousand miles in length from East to West, 
and fourteen hundred miles in breadth from North to South ; and 
has an area of about two millions two hundred and ten thousand 
superficial miles. 

If its value could be measured by its magnitude it would be 
enormous ; — but such as it is, it is not much inferior in natural 
value to Russia in Europe, which it more than equals in extent 
and in many respects resembles in character. 

Russia in Europe sustains a population of sixty-nine millions 
of souls. If this territory of ours be only half as good, it may 
sustain a population somewhat over the thirty millions Lord 
Selkirk estimated it as capable of supporting. 

If this great territory be added to our Confederation, together 
with Vancouver's Island, British Columbia, Prince Edward's Island 
and Newfoundland, with Labrador, the Dominion of Canada will 
then include an area of upwards of three millions of superficial 
miles. That is more than three-quarters of the area of the 
European continent, — or one-half greater than Russia in Europe 
in extent. 

Besides much exceeding Russia in Europe in extent of territory, 
Canada, when so augmented, will possess immensely greater 
maritime advantages. Instead of being almost excluded from 
the ocean, like that great country, she will have, on the Pacific, 
twelve hundred and fifty miles of the coast line of British Colum- 
bia and Vancouver's Island, open to navigation at all seasons ; 
besides three thousand seven hundred and fifty miles of coast, 
south of Latitude 60°, on the Atlantic and Gulf of St. Lawrence, 
(a great part of it open to navigation in winter,) exclusive of bays 
and inlets, and the estuary of the St. Lawrence; possessing also 
that mighty river, and eighteen hundred miles of coast on its 
great lakes; far surpassing any river in European Russia in 
importance as a commercial outlet. Without the St. Lawrence 
the Saskatchewan is equivalent to the Volga, and the ports of 
York and Moose Factory, and others in Hudson's and James' Bay, 
are naturally about equal to Archangel in value as means of 
access to the ocean, though as yet used only for the traffic of the 
Hudson's Bay Company. 

To avoid seeming to base our comparison, merely on territorial 
extent we may carry it a little further : — 



3 

Of the four hundred and two millions of "decatines," (of about 
two and one-seventh English acres each,) forming the total area of 
Eussia in Europe, M. Schnitzler, in his "Essai Statistique de la 
Eussie," estimates that the whole of the cultivated lands and 
the meadows taken together, does not exceed sixty-seven and a 
half millions, or about one-sixth part of the surface ; and by the 
Official Returns made about the time he wrote, the average yield 
was four and a half fold to one of rye sown, and nearly four to 
one of wheat. 

Xo doubt an equal proportion, at least, of the total area of our 
Provinces and Territories taken together is fit for cultivation, if 
returns like these be taken as the lowest standard; but if even one- 
twelfth part, instead of one-sixth of it, be capable of yielding the 
general average returns of Lower and Upper Canada, which by the 
last census are from two and a half to three and a half times as 
great as these rates, the ultimate productive capacity of our Do- 
minion and territories will probably be one-half greater than that 
of Eussia in Europe, even if fifty per cent, were added to her 
rates of produce mentioned. We have good grounds, therefore, for 
assuming that the comparison as to extent of territory and its 
capacity to sustain population is rather in our favor. 

As to the value of our maritime advantages, we have no need 
to rest on calculations of what may be, or estimates of future 
progress for the result. The Dominion has afloat to-day a com- 
mercial navy, that, in tonnage and number of men far surpasses 
that of the Russian Empire, exceeding that of any other continental 
power of the old world, excepting France, which it nearly equals.* 

In respect to this it is proper to remember that the Maritime 
Provinces, in confederating with Canada, have augmented her 
importance and power in a degree immensely exceeding the 
mere proportion of their population or extent of their territory. 
They have given her an ample sea-board, thickly studded with 
excellent harbours, — coal fields nearly as extensive as those of 
Great Britain, — and many thousands of hardy, skilful sea-faring 
men, who, to use the language of Governor Andrews in his 

* Xote, since the above was writtex.— Merchant Navies of Europe from 
"The Statesman's Year Book for 1868."— Great Britain, 5,452,862 tons ; France, 
1,008,084 tons; Italy, 660,662 tons; Russia, including Finland, 365,000 tons in 
1866 ; Dominion of Canada, by Canadian Parliamentary return on 1st July, 1867, — 

776,343 tons. 
Add for Guysboro, &c, not in return 36,000 " 

812,343 •• 

Newfoundland in 1866, by Canadian Year Book 83,204 " 

Prince Edward's Island in 1865 do 30,549 " 

926,096 tons. 







report to Congress on the British Provinces, from their superior 
intelligence and bodily vigour, and their experience in the naviga- 
tion of cold and stormy coasts, are the best of seamen, and well 
qualified to maintain the honor of their flag on every sea. 

The Dominion, though but in the beginning of her power, owns 
already about 800,000 of tons of shipping ; — bearing a proportion 
of about twenty per cent, to her population, while that of Great 
Britain, the greatest maritime power in the world, without her 
colonies, is only about eighteen per cent, per head. 

We see, therefore, that we have before us a greater and more 
advantageous field, as a basis of future national prosperity and 
power, than that on which has risen that empire whose greatness 
has not a little intimidated Europe, and has been supposed to 
threaten her independence. In view of this fact, — with superior 
civilization and institutions in our favor — we may surely hope to 
develop at least equally advantageous results from the territories 
at our command and their resource.", though less arrogant in our 
pretensions. 

This comparison is made for the purpose of showing that we 
have now no longer to look on outlying territories with that indif- 
ference with which they might have been regarded when our 
autonomy was limited to that of a single province, to which they 
might stand in little or no closer relation than a foreign land, but 
as integers, the utmost value of which will ultimately go to swell 
the balance in favor of our national strength and prosperity. 

In that view, while drawing the distinction broadly between 
what is immediately of high value to us, for the extension of 
settlement, by our present standard of the value of lands for that 
purpose, we must also take into account not only the inferior por- 
tions capable of any degree of agricultural occupation, in future 
time, under the influence of increasing demand and improved 
means of communication, but also regions which have no other 
value than that which their fisheries, their metals and other mineral 
resources may be found to present. 

We have already had a little experience of the error of under- 
valuing territory, under the idea that we had land enough without 
it. Many were indifferent to the loss, some years ago, of what was 
called the disputed territory, on the head waters of the Eiver 
St. John of New Brunswick ; but now we find that our railroad 
to Halifax, in order to avoid going straight through that territory, 
has to be made a hundred miles longer than it otherwise would 
have been; adding about six millions of dollars to the cost of 
making it, and about a dollar and a half for ever to the freight of 
every ton of goods passing over it. We are now making coloni- 
zation roads to let settlers into the scraps left us of that territory, 






and the loss of it lias seriously weakened our frontier. Our ex- 
perience in this instance should be a warning to us against under- 
valuing our opportunity of acquiring useful territory now. 

In briefly describing the great Northern Territory of British 
America, it may be divided into the following sections, partly on 
account of their distinct natural character or geographical position, 
and partly for convenience in speaking of them. 
1st. East Main or the Peninsula of Labrador. 
2nd. South Hudson's Bay Territory,— between that Bay and 
Lakes Winnipeg and Athabasca, from the northern 
water-shed of the St. Lawrence to lat. 60° K 
3rd. North Hudson's Bay Territory or Barren Ground, extend- 
ing from the preceding to the Arctic Ocean. 
4th. The McKenzie Biver country, from lat. 60° N., to the 

Arctic Ocean, 
oth. The Pelly Biver or Mountain Territory, embracing all 
north of British Columbia from the crest of the 
Bocky Mountains to Bussian America. 
6th. The Bed Biver, Saskatchewan and Beace Biver Country, 
or Central Prairie Land, extending from the Lake 
of the Woods and Lakes Winnipeg and Athabasca 
to the Bocky Mountains, and from the United States 
boundary, lat. 49° K up to lat, 60 Q K 
The last of these divisions only is of great and immediate im- 
portance to us, for the extension of settlement and commerce, and 
for the command of communication to the Pacific Ocean; — objects 
alike eminently important for the expansion and consolidation of 
national power. 

Before proceeding to consider its value in relation to Canada, 
and the means of communicating with it, the other sections men- 
tioned may be briefly noticed. Though now only of value for their 
fur trade, and of little or no interest beyond that, at present, except- 
ing to naturalists and other men of science, — we are unable, to say 
that they may not, in future, become of some importance for their 
mineral wealth or other natural resources, now unknown or un- 
available.* 

* Note. — Since the above was written, British Columbia and Newfoundland 
have decided in favor of union with Canada. And it has been agreed between the 
Imperial Government and the Hudson's Bay Company, that Canada is to have all 
the territories held or owned by the latter for £300,000, Stg., (which Great Britain 
guarantees), the Company retaining their trading posts, with an allowance of land 
around them, and one -twentieth of the land, as sales to settlers take place, for fifty 
years; which unites their powerful interest to ours in the tranquillity and speedy 
settlement of the country. 



6 
CHAPTER II. 

EAST MAIN, OR THE PENINSULA OF LABRADOR. 

This great peninsula, lying between Hudson's Bay and the 
Atlantic ocean, extends a thousand miles from east to west, be- 
tween Cape St. Charles, at the entrance of the Straits of Belle- 
Isle, and James' Bay, and eight hundred miles from north to south, 
from Cape Wolstenholme, its northern extremity, to the height of 
land dividing the waters of Rupert's River from those of the Sague- 
nay. 

Geographically it might be described as bounded on the south- 
west between James' Bay and the mouth of the St. Lawrence, by 
Rupert's River, up to its source, and thence eastward by a line to 
the Bay of Seven Islands ; which would give it an erea of about 
four hundred and eighty thousand superficial miles. But the 
southern part of the peninsula of Labrador, facing the Gulf, as far 
eastward as Ance Blanc Sablon, and back to the sources of the 
rivers falling into the Gulf, belongs to Canada. (Blanc Sablon is 
ninety miles within the eastern entrance of the straits of Belle-Isle.) 
Deducting this part, the remainder of the Peninsula has an area of 
about four hundred and twenty thousand superficial miles, or a 
little more than Denmark, Norway, Sweden and Lapland, taken 
together. 

The eastern part of it, facing the straits of Belle-Isle, and the 
Atlantic, as far northward as the entrance of Ungava Bay, called 
Labrador in the strictest sense, is under the jurisdiction of New- 
foundland. The remainder, which is much the larger part, is held 
by the Hudson's Bay Company, and is commonly known by the 
name of East Main. 

Labrador was first discovered in A.D. 986, by the Northman 
Bearne, the son Heriulf, who called it "Helluland it Mikla" or 
"Great slate land," from the stratified rocks (secondary limestone) 
seen on its coast. It was re-discovered by Sebastin Cabot, and 
five years afterwards, in A.D. 1501, it was visited by Corte Beal, 
who, with less accuracy, called it "Terra Labrador" "Cultivable or 
laborers' land," believing it to be so from the growth of trees he 
saw upon it. 

It is remarkable of this great peninsula, that though it lies next 
to Europe, and is the first discovered part of the American conti- 
nent, very little is known of its interior; and that but lately. 
What is known of it, is such as to impress the mind powerfully 
with a sense of its vast and stern desolation. From the coldness 
of its climate and its general sterility, it .seems utterly unfit for 
occupation by civilized men; except where a scattered population 






might live by the fisheries of some parts of its coast; or where its 
mineral resources may give profitable employment to industry. 

As might be expected in so great an extent, it presents consid- 
erable variety of character. The interior of the eastern part of it, 
where traversed, is found to be a high table land upwards of 2,000 
feet above the level of the sea ; with occasional mountains, rising 
to 3,000 feet, and some nearly to 4,000 feet. The valleys and lower 
slopes are covered with spruce, fir, and birch woods, of a moderate 
growth, in favorable positions; the spruce trees in some places 
averaging eighteen inches in diameter and fifty feet in height; 
in rare instances they have been found two feet in diameter, even 
as far north as the Moravian missionary station of Nain, on the 
Atlantic. 

Much of the coast on the Atlantic and the Gulf is utterly barren 
of timber for many miles inland, and often destitute of soil ; and 
much of the interior is burned bare to the rock by running fires 
more or less recent. 

Advancing northward, the trees become more scattered, in 
groups, and stunted, till towards its northern extremity, and Hud- 
son's Straits, it assumes the character of the Arctic " Barren 
Grounds" and the " Tundrens " of Siberia, and is like them the 
abode of the reindeer, that feed on the lichens and other Arctic 
vegetation its rocky surface affords. 

As to surface, the western part of the peninsula seemingly con- 
trasts with the eastern part. It is represented by physical geo- 
graphers as being chiefly a plain country, for two hundred miles or 
more back from Hudson's Bay. 

From what is known, its geological character seems consider- 
ably varied. The formation of the great Silurian basin of Hud- 
son's Bay extends in a broad band far into the southern part of the 
Peninsula, and has even been represented, though doubtless on im- 
perfect data, as connecting with the limestone formation of the east 
coast. 

Though lying in the same latitude as the British Islands, the 
climate of this immense peninsula, taken as a whole, is no better 
than that of Lapland; in the northern parts it is even colder. But 
like that country, in the most southerly parts, it is such as to admit 
of the cultivation of vegetables, in favorable situations. 

Mr. Gladman had a good opportunity of observing, during his 
thirty-one years' service in the Hudson's Bay Company. He states 
in his evidence given to a committee of the Canadian Legislature, 
that at East Main Old Factory he raised good potatoes, turnips and 
other vegetables. East Main Factory is sixty miles north of 
Bupert's Paver. He says further, that a large herd of cattle was 
kept there, at that time, as a resource in case of the company's ships 



wintering in the "bay, an abundant supply of hay being made in 
the salt marshes on the shores of the bay: that vetches grow wild 
« >n the point of the river, and abundance of strawberries and cur- 
rants. 

He says that at Big Biver, a hundred and eighty miles north of 
Rupert's River, potatoes and other vegetables are grown. The cold 
in winter is evidently intense. He states the lowest degree of 
temperature registered by him was 50° below zero at East Main. 
He says that at Rupert House the soil is much better and the sta- 
tion more sheltered than East Main Factory, or Big Biver, and more 
favorable for garden cultivation. The Finish colonists who raised 
barley at Alten, (lat. 70°) in Lapland, would no doubt be quite suc- 
cessful in doing so on the warm rich soil of the Silurian basin at 
Rupert's Biver. 

The climate of Hamilton Biver, in the south-eastern angle of the 
peninsula, is apparently similar. Notwithstanding the lofty, rugged 
and extremely barren character of the shores of Hamilton inlet, 
into which the river falls, Mr. Davis, in an article read before the 
Literary and Historical Society of Quebec, speaks of the pleasing 
aspect of the valley of Hamilton Biver, of its being w r ell timbered 
and having a loamy soil in parts, with some advantage in climate, 
and mentions the Hudson's Bay Company's farm, where cows, pigs 
and sheep were kept. 

In respect to the growing of garden vegetables, and having 
forests, such as they are, the southern parts of the peninsula of 
Labrador much resemble the more favorable part of Lapland. 

These facts are not altogether unimportant in connection with 
the probable ultimate extension of fishing settlements, or the for- 
mation of mining establishments, should minerals of value be 
found in the confines of the Silurian and Laurentian formations. 

That part of the peninsula under the jurisdiction of Newfound- 
land is evidently very valuable for its fisheries. As early as 1832, 
the value of its yearly exports are stated by Mr. McGregor to have 
amounted to upwards of three hundred thousand pounds sterling. 

The west coast of the peninsula, within Hudson's Bay, forming 
part of the Hudson's Bay Company's territory, is much less 
valuable in- that respect. The entrance to the Bay is much ob- 
structed by ice late in spring, ancT early in the fall ; the Com- 
pany's ships, which make but a single voyage into the Bay each 
summer, being sometimes, though rarely, prevented from returning 
to Europe, till the following season. 

To fishing for foreign markets this would be a very great disad- 
vantage. The absence of salmon on that coast, and the streams 
falling into it, is another. A salmon, not of the ordinary kind, — 
probably the "Salmo Bossii" of the Arctic, is occasionally, 
though rarely seen, in some of the rivers falling into Hudson's Bay. 









Though Codfish are well known to be exceedingly abundant 
at Davis' Straits, (see Beport of Commissioners of British Fisheries 
for 1846,) they are not generally noticed in such a way as to indi- 
cate that they are so in Hudson's Bay ; nor are they mentioned as 
forming part of the food of the native or other residents. 

Seals and porpoises, however, are abundant. Some are of opin- 
ion that the absence of salmon is due to the seals being so numer- 
ous. Umfraville, in 1790, says that whales, white and black, sea 
horses, bears and seals, are killed in great numbers by the Esqui- 
maux ; and Lieut, Chappel, in 1817, proposes the opening of a free 
intercourse with Canada as likely to animate the exertions of the 
Esquimaux in their seal and whale fishing. 

The natural facilities for opening a direct interior communi- 
cation with Hudson's Bay will be briefly noticed in the following 
section. 

As, apart from whaling, " Seal Fishing" would- seem to be the 
only profitable industry that the west coast of the peninsula 
admits of, it becomes natural to inquire what the importance of 
Seal Fishing is, as a branch of trade, where it can be carried on 
successfully, and what employment it would afford. , 

The Seal Fishery of Newfoundland may serve to explain this. 
Mr. M. H. Perley, in his " Beport on the sea and river fisheries 
of New Brunswick," says that the outfit for the seal fisheries of 
Newfoundland, for 1847, consisted of 321 vessels, making in all 
29,800 tons, with 9,751 men. The average yield for ten years was 
about half a million of seal skins, and three millions of gallons of 
oil. It is roughly estimated that about a million of seals are killed 
annually on the coast of Labrador proper, by the Esquimax and 
other seal fishers. 

What may be the comparative value of Hudson's Bay as a site 
of seal and other fisheries remains to be known. Tt would seem 
desirable that it should be ascertained by one or more practical 
men of business, enc-a^ed in the trade of Labrador, commissioned 
for that purpose. 



CHAPTER III. 

SOUTH HUDSON'S RAY TERRITORY. 

We may next turn to the adjacent section of country, held by 
the Hudson's Bay Company, lying between Hudson's Bay and 
the Lakes Winnipeg and Athabasca ; extending from the northern 
water-shed of the St. Lawrence and its tributaries — the reputed 







10 

boundary of Canada, to the parallel of lat. 60° K, — including with 
it the Abittibbi District, between the water-shed and Kupert's 
River : — containing in all an area of about four hundred and thirty 
thousand superficial miles. 

For the convenience of description it may be called the South 
Hudson's Bay Territory. 

Though this territory has a very cold climate, exceedingly so 
in winter, (the greater part of it is too cold to admit of agricultural 
occupation of any kind,) it is nevertheless far more valuable than 
East Main, besides being especially so in relation to Canada. 

It is the coldness of the climate alone that prevents this territory 
from being very valuable as an agricultural country. One-half 
of it lies in the great northern Silurian basin, in which Hudson's 
Bay is situated. That formation besides underlying the greater 
part of the district of Abbitibbi, (which is a little larger than New 
Brunswick,) is represented by Sir John Eichardson as extending 
from two hundred miles in the north part to four hundred miles in 
the south, due westward from Hudson's and James' Bay. It is 
.shown as extending also to the distance of two hundred miles 
southward from the south end of James' Bay, and comes to the 
boundary of Canada at the sources of the northern tributaries of 
Lake Temiscaming of the Ottawa* where it is called the level 
clay country by the Hudson's Bay Company's people. It is so 
called in contradistinction to the rugged Laurentian Country 
forming the height of land, where the waters of the Ottawa and 
northern tributaries of the Great Lakes, and those of Hudson's 
Bay interlace, and which extends over the Ottawa Valley and 
the country north of the Lakes Huron and Superior, rendering so 
much of them unfit for settlement. 

The boundary of this Silurian plain country is probably quite 
irregular, and may in many parts not be accurately known. Mr. 
Ballantyne, who resided there, places it about Martin's Falls, on 
the Albany River, two hundred and fifty miles due west of James' 
Bay ; and says the river flows through a limestone and clay country 
to the Bay. Lieut. Blackiston, in ascending Hayes' Eiver from 
York Factory, describes the country on it as alluvial, without any 
rock being visible, for a hundred and twenty-four miles, to the first 
portage, where he says the primitive formation commences, and 
that is two hundred miles due west from the coast of the Bay. 

It will be seen by the accompanying map, that this broad band 
of Silurian formation, which sweeps round Hudson's Bay, in a north- 
westerly direction, attains a width of five hundred miles about 

*Note. — By an extensive survey, just completed by Provincial Surveyor L. 
Russell, it has been ascertained that though the clay land of Hudson's Bay extends 
south of Lake Abbitibbi to the northern waters of the Ottawa, the underlying rocks 
■are there Laurentian. 



11 

Lat 63° N. ; tlaen turning north-eastward continues to the Artie 
Sea, which its western outline intersects about Long. 97° W. 

It will be seen also that it, again, is encircled by that broad 
band of primary formation, known in Canada as the Laurentian 
Eange, which skirts the lower St. Lawrence, and forms the nor- 
thern boundary of the great plain of Lower Canada. Gradually 
declining in height, and increasing in breadth, to tw T o hundred 
miles, it crosses the Ottawa above the mouth of the Bonnechere, 
and sweeps round the north shore of Lakes Huron and Superior. 
Curving north-westward with a breadth of two hundred miles, this 
Laurentian Belt continues along the rear of the Silurian country 
of Hudson's Bay, with varying breadth, increasing to four hundred 
miles where it joins the Artie. Its western boundary, commen- 
cing at Bainy Lake, passes north-westward, through the Lake of 
the Woods, and along the east shore of Lake Winnipeg ; then curv- 
ing more westerly, through Cedar Lake, on the Saskatchewan, to 
Methy Portage, and thence on a more northerly course, through the 
west end of Lake Athabasca, and near the middle of Slave Lake, 
it passes to the east end of Bear Lake, and thence north-eastward 
to the Artie Sea, at the west end of Coronation Gulf. 

This broad range of primary formation divides the great Silu- 
rian basin of Hudson's Bay from the still greater central basin, or 
sloping plateau, of Silurian and more recent formations, lying 
between it and the Bocky Mountains, and extending from the 
Artie Sea to the Gulf of Mexico ; it also divides both of them 
from Canada. 

Though east and north of Quebec the summits of this range 
rise from two to three thousand feet, fronting the Biver St. Law- 
rence, — and four and five thousand feet in the interior — it declines 
so in height as it goes westward, that where it traverses the Ottawa, 
its summits rise only from five to thirteen hundred feet, : — and very 
rarely the latter, over that river. After ascending through the 
Laurentide Bange, by the vaBey of the Ottawa, the water-shed 
between its waters and those of Hudson's Bay, has, in parts 
scarcely any perceptible elevation, and is passed unnoticed. 

Though presenting a lofty and very rugged barrier along the 
north side of Lake Superior, especially where it goes westward 
towards the frontier of the United States, — and the same north of 
Lake Huron — it becomes lower further northward, rising but little 
over the adjoining country. 

Where it divides the two great Silurian basins, and forms the 
west half of the territory we have now under consideration, Sir 
John Bichardson says "its altitude nowhere entitles it to the 
apellation of mountain chain. Its hypogenous rocks, which are 
chiefly granite and gneiss, scarcely rise above the mean eastern 






12 




slope, and in no case present continuous ridges or acute peaks. 
They exhibit generally rounded or dome-shaped summits, or form 
oblong eminences, separated by narrow inclined valleys, the larger 
ones occupied, without exception, by deep lakes ; and the propor- 
tion of water is very great." 

This declination in height and peculiar character of the range, 
are mentioned, not only as meriting notice as descriptive of a large 
part of this section of territory, but especially because they are of 
importance to us, as admitting of a most direct line of Kailway 
from Montreal to the lied River settlement, (and the Pacific,) about 
four hundred miles shorter than the route through Minnesota, now 
used ; as favorable as to the character of the ground as much of 
what is to be made of the Intercolonial Railway, in the country 
between the St. Lawrence and New Brunswick, and passing 
through much land as fit for settlement, and with as good a climate; 
but with less depth of snow in winter. 

The probability of this fact as to a direct route to Red River, 
was stated in evidence given before the last Canadian Parliamen- 
tary Committee on the North-west Territory. It has since been 
to an important extent confirmed by the results of surveys of the 
Montreal River, a north-western tributary of the Ottawa, and of a 
line, from it, a hundred and five miles westward, performed last 
winter by Provincial Surveyors A. G. Forrest and D. Sinclair. 
The valley of the river for a hundred miles was found to present 
a good site for a railroad, while it was learned that the line of a 
hundred and five miles was, at its commencement, only about four- 
teen miles south of the continuous level clay country, and about 
twenty miles from it at its termination ; the intervening distance, 
at the commencement, to the clay country, being traversed by an 
arm of the river. These surveys have on that account a peculiar 
value. 

CLIMATE OF SOUTH HUDSON'S BAY TERRITORY. 

In order to see what reason there is for speaking so favorably of 
the climate of this part of the south Hudson's Bay Territory, let us 
consider a little more closely what is known of it as a whole. 

The north-east part of it is extremely cold. The Barren Ground 
of the north, where trees of every kind almost entirely cease to exist, 
sweeps down into the north-eastern part of it, as much as a hun- 
dred and fifty miles southward of the sixtieth parallel of latitude ; 
closely approaching Churchill River, towards its mouth. Even at 
York Factory, nothing but the hardiest vegetables can be raised. 
In summer there is a thickness of seven feet of perpetually frozen 
ground, at ten feet below the surface, and spruce trees, the pre- 
vailing wood, are almost uselessly small. 






13 



But the climate improves equally southward and westward; the 
western side of it, even to its north-west angle, is wooded thickly, 
and Hanks the great central region suitable for cultivation. 

Umfraville, writing in 1790, says that the pine trees (spruce 
probably) on the coast of Hudson's Bay, near York Fort, are " too 
small and knotty to be used for good building; but on leaving the 
marshy country and going inland to the southward, trees are of a 
more stately growth ; and about Albany and Moose Forts they are 
found of all diameters ;" and adds further that " potatoes, turnips, 
and almost all kitchen garden stuff, are raised with facility, and 
no doubt corn could be raised," but the Company, he says, dis- 
courage anything like cultivation. 

Mr. Gladman, whose evidence has been already quoted, resided 
fifteen years at Moose Factory ; he says its climate and soil are good, 
that he raised potatoes and other vegetables there in great abun- 
dance, that barley ripened well, and that horned cattle, horses, 
sheep and pigs were kept there. It is to be observed that Moose 
Factory is upwards of two hundred and thirty miles north of the 
boundary between this territory and Canada. He acids that the 
soil and climate of Albany, which is a hundred miles further 
north, does not differ much from Moose, that it is well sheltered, 
and that the extensive marshes on the coast furnish abundant 
fodder for domestic cattle. He also says that the soil around the 
posts of Henly, Martin's Falls, Osnaburg and Lac Seul, is of a 
quality that enables the servants of the company to raise fair crops 
of potatoes. 

At iSTew Brunswick House, which is a hundred miles further 
south, he says the soil is very good, that excellent .potatoes are 
raised there, eilso every description of vegetables. Oats ripened 
well, and made good oatmeal, ground with a hand mill ; wheat 
was tried afterwards, he was informed, with good success. He 
says further, " that he doe> not know anything to prevent a good 
settle.. r : ent f i om being made there, but its being rather distant from 
market." 

South of Lake Abbitibbi, near the southern boundary of this 
territory, the mean summer temperature probably exceeds that of 
Halifax, Nova Scotia, as it well may, seeing the mean temperature 
on Lake Temiscaming, about one degree further south, so nearly 
resembles that of Montreal ; the mean of the summer of the 
former being G5°20, and of the year 39°49, and the corresponding 
mean temperature of the latter 65°55 and 42°86, by the tables 
given by Sir John Kichardson in his " Arctic Kesearches."* Lake 
Abbitibbi lies nearly in the same latitude as the west coast of 

* His published tables differ slightly in fractions from the above, owing to typo- 
: :al errors. 



Lake St. John, on the Upper Saguenay, which has the climate of 
Three Rivers, and yields excellent wheat. 

Speaking of Martin's Falls, a post on the Albany Eiver, upwards 
of two hundred miles westward from James' Bay, and two- 
hundred miles north from Lake Superior, Mr. Barnston, who 
resided there, says that " it has the winter of Russia and the July 
and August of Germany and France; that in the usual course 
of seasons the buds of the trees begin to swell about the 12th 
of May, and leaves expand about 28th May," (which is as early 
as they did at Ottawa this last Spring.) He says that " a night's 
frost will sometimes intervene as late as the 10th June," 
(which is the case in central Canada, occasionally about the 
15th of June,) that "by the 1st October foilage is yellow and 
falling. Usually there is a little snow by 20th October, and it 
covers the ground by 1st November." In Johnson's Physical Atlas 
the line of wheat cultivation is represented as passing here. It is 
quite possible that it may. 

At the north end of Lake Winnipeg, on the western side of this 
section, three hundred and fifty miles north of Rainy River, its 
southern boundary, Captain Blackiston, of the Imperial Exploring 
Expedition, states that barley, potatoes, onions, carrots, peas and 
pumpkins, flourish in the open air, and melons can be forced ; but 
he adds that at Holy Lake, a hundred and sixty miles north-east- 
ward, near the centre of this section, potatoes do not always attain 
full size. 

Towards the south end of Lake Winnipeg, at Fort Alexander, on 
the mouth of the River Winnipeg, at a hundred and fifty miles 
north of Rainy River, spring wheat grows well. Mr. Dawson, in 
his report of his Red River exploration, states that the Indians 
have always raised Indian corn with success on the islands of the 
Lake of the Woods. 

The south-western part of this territory is quite fit for cultiva- 
tion, as regards climate ; but unfortunately, instead of being a fertile 
Silurian plain, like the north-east side bordering on Hudson's 
Bay, it is chiefly of the Laurentian formation, and is generally 
very rocky ; more so, as far as known, than the Laurentian, 
or greater part of the Ottawa country, but presenting, like it, excep- 
tional tracts of good land. 

BOUNDARY OF THE GREAT SILURIAN BASIN OF HUDSON'S BAY. 



Excepting on the canoe route from Lake Superior to Red River 
very little information is before the public respecting this section 
of territory. Its character and value may be found to be in a con- 
siderable degree affected by the extent to which the Silurian 






15 

basin of Hudson's Bay may reach into it. Authorities differ 
widely as to the position of the boundary of that formation. Mr. 
Ballantyne would seemingly place it a little above Martin's 
Falls, on the Albany Biver ; Sir John Bichardson carries it two 
hundred miles further west, on that river, to the Head of Lake 
Joseph, near longitude 91° W. ; but not beyond the south side 
of that lake. In the geological chart of Johnson's Physical Atlas, 
it is shown as curving downwards there, fully a hundred miles 
south of Lake Joseph. We would naturally suppose there must 
have been some basis of fact for such a representation, perhaps 
the existence of a considerable outlier of Silurian formation, like 
the limestone at the head of Lake T^miscaming, which in that 
chart is erroneously represented as an arm of the Silurian basin of 
Hudson's Bay. Perhaps the diluvial clay of that basin which 
overlaps the Laurentian formation to and over the water-shed of 
the Ottawa, north of Lake Temiscaming, and appears to have led 
to mistake as to the boundary of the Silurian basin there, may 
have obscured its position elsewhere. 

As outliers of Silurian limestone and tracts of level clay soil, 
within the limits of possible agricultural occupation, in the great 
region between us and the Bed Biver country, may ultimately 
prove of some importance, from their soil being more suitable for 
cultivation than the rocky Laurentian ground prevailing nearer, 
further and more accurate information as to the geological and 
topographical character of the country upon and immediately 
beyond the northern water-shed of Lakes Huron and Superior, is 
most desirable. The highly interesting information respecting 
Lake Xipigon, furnished last summer to the Crown Lands Depart- 
ment by the private enterprise of Mr. W. Armstrong, C. E., is an 
instance of what may be obtained even by cursory exploration. 

FERTILE TRACT ON RAINY RIVER, 

As an exception to the generally rough, rocky, marshy and. 
poor character of the country, between the water-shed of Lake 
Superior and Lake Winnipeg, forming the south-west angle of the 
section under consideration, the fertile tract along the north side 
of Bainy Biver is of much importance, from its lying on the line 
of communication with the Bed Biver country. 

This tract is described as extending from Fort Francis, on the 
outlet of Bainy Lake, to the Lake of the Woods, sixty miles in 
direct distance, or eighty by the course of the river, with a breadth 
back from it of from half a mile to twelve miles, and is estimated, 
by Professor Hind, as containing over two hundred and twenty 
thousand acres of rich alluvial land, highly suitable for cultivation. 
On the other hand it is stated that the front of it only is dry 



16 

^enough for cultivation, and that the ground behind would need 
draining, to render it available. In either case, however, it would 
admit of continuous settlement for eighty miles along a central 
part of the route to Red Kiver, which is important. 

Rainy River is here the boundary between the State of Min- 
nesota and British territory. It is a noble stream, described by 
our Canadian explorers as from two to three hundred yards in 
width and six feet in depth, with a current of about two miles an 
hour. The great Falls at Fort Francis, of about twenty-three feet, 
and two small rapids, the Manitou at thirty-four miles lower, with 
a fall of three feet, and the Long Rapid below it, with a fall of 
two and a half feet, are the only obstructions to navigation, from 
the east end of Rainy Lake to the west end of the Lake of the 
Woods, a distance of about one hundred and seventy miles. This 
navigable reach forms an important part of the proposed line of 
communication between Lake Superior and the Red River Settle- 
ment. 

The banks of Rainy River are from fifteen to fifty feet in height, 
wooded with a large growth of elm, balm of Gilead, ash, oak and 
basswood. The soil is a rich dark, sandy loam, mixed with much 
vegetable matter, and resting on clay. From the masses of 
limestone occasionally seen, there is reason to think that it 
underlies the bed of the river, and extends westward to Red 
River. 

Mr. Pether, who was in charge of Fort Francis, described the 
climate as much the same as that of Montreal, only colder in 
winter. Wheat, root crops and kitchen vegetables, are successfully 
cultivated at Fort Francis. 

Behind the fertile plateau Mr. Pether states that there is a 
peaty marsh of immense extent, with a depth in parts of thirty 
feet. It is bare of timber ; nothing but low bushes grow on it. 

As we already begin to use peat fuel with advantage in Canada, 
we can see in this bog an unlimited supply of fuel for the fertile 
tract when cultivation has removed its woods. 

On the shores and islands of the Lake of the Woods, there are 
patches of good land, where the Indians have gardens, and have 
raised Indian corn without failure for many years. At the Mission 
of Islington, about thirty-five miles down the River Winnipeg, 
from the Lake of the Woods, and a hundred and twenty miles 
further north than Fort Francis, Mr. Hind states in his report that 
wheat is sown about the 20th of May, and reaped about the 26th 
of August, that Indian corn ripens well, and potatoes had never, 
during five years' cultivation, been injured by frost. 

A hundred miles east of Islington, and as much north of Rainy 
Lake, there is reported to be a good grain-growing tract on the 







north shore of Lac'Seul. The existence of the Bainy Biver tract 
renders it likely that there are others. As elsewhere in Laurentian 
countries, many tracts of good arable land, of limited extent, no 
doubt exist on the banks of the lakes and rivers, as remarked alike 
.by Mr. Dawson and Mr. Hind, and in the valleys between the low 
dome-shaped hills that prevail over this region ; but from being- 
scattered and isolated they will long remain valueless, unless near 
the line of communication, or where they can be occupied in con- 
nection with mining operations, lumbering or fisheries. 

Among these we might include the small tracts of drift occur- 
ring on the portages and on the islands in Lac de Mille Lacs, near 
the height of land, on the canoe route to Eainy Lake, noticed by 
Mr. Hind, who elsewhere says that there is no scarcity of arable 
land between the low hill ranges of Lac de Mille Lacs and Baril 
Lake to support a mining population. But their being on the 
coldest part of the route and subject to frost in summer, owing 
apparently to their elevation, is not to be overlooked. 

As there is evident scope for the branches of industry mentioned, 
even the isolated tracts will, after the opening of a line of com- 
munication, be profitably occupied, but slowly, in the face of the 
greater inducement westward ; while the good lands on the route 
will be more speedily taken up where the climate is favorable, as 
on Bainy Biver. 

It may seem difficult to reconcile what is stated with regard to 
the growth of wheat at the places mentioned, with the fact that it 
seldom ripens well at Fort William ; but not so when we consider 
that, owing to its vast extent, the very low temperature of Lake 
Superior, (excepting near the shore,) scarcely 40° on the last day 
of July, necessarily reduces the summer heat on its northern coast, 
while the temperature of the heights of land which are compara- 
tively near it is reduced by their elevation. Thus, decidedly greater 
warmth of climate, after crossing the height of land and approach- 
ing Bainy Lake, is noticed alike by Sir John Bichardson and other 
explorers. 

At Fort Francis on Bainy Biver, where this tract of rich alluvial 
land commences, Sir John Bichardson and others say that wheat 
i,s sown from the 1st to the 23rd of May, and reaped in the latter 
end of August. 

To army officers, gentlemen from England, who have explored 
this region, the climate at Fort Francis might seem by no means 
favorable ; and men even from the western peninsula of Canada 
might look upon it as much inferior to that of their own country ; 
but those accustomed to the north-eastern settlements of Lower 
Canada see it in a different light. 



18 



When I was a backwoodsman engaged in farming and assisting 
to locate settlers, from thirty-seven to forty-five years ago, in the 
county of Megantic, fifty miles south-westward of Quebec, we 
sowed our wheat rather later than it is done at Fort Francis, and 
instead of reaping it in August, we were glad to get it all secured in 
September — were lucky if early frosts did not damage it, and if we 
got our other crops secured in October. 

Superior cultivation may have mended matters somewhat now, 
but many of the north and east parts of Lower Canada are inferior 
to Megantic in climate. I have seen rather green rye carted home 
in the beginning of November, with a snow storm coming on, in 
the parish of Les Eboulements, from rich clay soil, generally well 
worth cultivation, nevertheless. But as to the soil and climate, 
at least, practical men would prefer the rich alluvial lands of 
Eainy Eiver and its August harvest, with its broad navigable 
stream, and exceedingly rich fisheries, to either Megantic or Les 
Eboulements. 

We see, therefore, that the south side of this territory, for a 
breadth of upward of a hundred miles in some parts, (as at Fort 
Alexander and New Brunswick House,) is as suitable in climate 
for raising wheat as parts of Lower Canada, where settlements have 
long existed, or are now being formed ; and no doubt much of the 
remainder which we class as suitable, for the growth of barley 
only, may, on account of the soil, which its level Silurian character 
indicates, be quite as profitably cultivated as the tracts on the 
north-east parts of the Tache Eoacl in Bimouski, now being opened 
for settlement. The Intercolonial Bailroad has to pass through 
such a region as the latter, in soil and climate, on leaving the 
St. Lawrence. 

From the preceding facts, it will be seen, that if a line be drawn 
north-westward, from Expert's Eiver to Oxford House, and con- 
tinued a little beyond the head of Lake Winnipeg, it roughly 
divides this territory into halves, and, with slight curves, may be 
taken as representing the limit of .the cultivation of barley ; while 
a similar line from the north side of Lake Abittibbi, passing more 
westerly, a little north of New Brunswick House, and a hundred 
and twenty miles north of Eainy Lake, striking Lake Winnipeg 
north of Fort Alexander, may be taken as the northern line of the 
cultivation of wheat. 

The southern half, or about 230,000 square miles of this terri- 
tory, therefore presents an area nearly twice as large, and quite as 
favorable for cultivation, as Finland, which was formerly called the 
Granary of Sweden. European works on Physical Geography, 
scarcely include any of Finland within the limits of wheat cultiva- 
tion ; but all of it within the line of barley. But Finland is all of 






19 

primitive rock formation, and is therefore inferior in soil to this 
territory, which has 50,000 square miles of Silurian formation 
within the limits of cultivation ; yet Finland maintains upwards of 
a million and a half of people. 

It is worth mention further that this territory offers a great 
extent of timber lands on the eastern tributaries of Lake Winnipeg, 
especially the upper part of the water system, which forms part 
of the proposed communication with Red River. This fact is 
given by S. J. Dawson, Esquire, in his Report of Exploration, who, 
from great experience in the lumber trade, is an excellent judge. 
The pine, though much smaller than Ottawa timber, is with other 
woods, on these streams, the best that can be had for the adjoining 
parts of the great prairie land westward to which the streams will 
carry it. 

The south-western part of this territory will therefore become 
the site of an important lumber trade, while its rivers and numer- 
ous lakes offer more abundant fisheries than those of the great 
lakes of the St. Lawrence, where so many thousand barrels of 
white-fish are taken annually for use and sale. The white-fish 
is really much superior, as an article of food, to that much boasted 
fish the salmon. 

Before leaving this territory we may observe, that the country 
between Hudson's Bay and Canada is intersected by various 
large rivers, falling into Hudson's Bay, that interlace the tributary 
waters of the Ottawa and the Lakes Huron and Superior, on the 
summit plateau, in long, deep lake-like channels. They present 
natural highways that with tow-paths and waggon portage roads, 
and occasional slight clams in their further courses, would form 
excellent inland routes of transport to Hudson's Bay, should 
fishing settlements be established there, or for communication in 
the future with the cultivable part of the Silurian basin. 

To carry provisions by sea from the Great Lakes, where they are 
so cheap, to fisheries on Hudson's Bay, would take a voyage of four 
thousand miles, which from the difficulty of its entrance and 
navigation, could be performed but once in a season. From Lake 
Superior the direct distance to Hudson's Bay is only three hundred 
miles, and from Lake Temiscaming, on the Ottawa, only two 
hundred and forty-nine. 

By the rivers this distance would be of course increased con- 
siderably. There is a route heretofore used by the Hudson's Bay 
boats through from Michipicoten, and there are good canoe routes 
through from Lake Temiscaming. 

These routes would well merit the cost of a cursory exploration 
of them by a competent practical man, accustomed to road and 
river works in new countries, with a view to ascertain their capa- 







city and the facilities they offer of improvement on an economical 
scale. 

In exhibiting these facts I by no means pretend to say that this 
section of territory is of importance to Canada for immediate settle- 
ment. It may be long before any but a few enterprising adven- 
turers, on routes of communication, will occupy it, from the simple 
reason that the prairie land beyond it is so much preferable. But 
it seems quite within the bounds of cautious moderation to say, 
that a country quite equal to Finland, and about double its extent, 
with forests of considerable importance, and rich fisheries, and 
that commands a line of communication of great importance to 
us, may at least ultimately be of much value to Canada. 

As the opinions here given may differ widely from the views of 
gentlemen in the service of the Hudson's Bay Company, it is 
necessary to explain that there is such a thing as prejudice of 
occupation and upbringing, of which we have powerful instances. 
When the question of the division of Canada into two provinces 
was discussed, in the end of last century, Mr. Lymburner, a most 
experienced and intelligent Member of Assembly, argued against 
the measure, on the ground that it was an indisputable fact that 
the country above the Falls of Niagara would never be inhabited 
by civilized men. 

When the first township of what is now the South Biding of 
Benfrew was surveyed, the earliest lumberers laughed at the idea 
that settlement would extend there ; not from opposition to it, for 
they desired settlement to aid them, but from the stereotyped 
idea then in force, that the country was too remote and rough to 
be inhabited. 

Even in the year 1839, a gentleman of unquestionable honour 
and experience, who had been engaged in the fur trade in the 
Upper Saguenay country, informed an officer of long and high 
standing in the Crown Land Department, that the Saugenay 
country was so utterly valueless for occupation that no man need 
ever take a mill stone or a mill saw into it. Twelve years after- 
wards, when sent by Government to project colonization roads there, 
I traversed, in a short time, unoccupied good land enough to make 
seven parishes, besides thriving settlements well advanced, where 
excellent wheat was raised; and many ships were even then 
employed in exporting its sawn lumber. "Now there are twenty 
thousand people living there on the local produce of the mill-stone 
and the employment the saw mills afford them. I must apologize 
for stating these facts so fully ; but they are important as regards 
the question of settlement. 



CHAPTER IV. 

NORTH HUDSON'S BAY TERRITORY, OR BARREN GROUND. 

Little need be said of this section of territory ; it is here noticed 
separately to distinguish its valueless character as a whole. 

It may be described as the country lying north and west of 
Hudson's Bay, from latitude 60° to the Artie sea, back to Great 
Bear Lake and Slave Lake, assuming for its western boundary 
the dividing line between the primary formation and the Silurian 
basin of the Eiver McKenzie, from the middle of Slave Lake to 
the east end of Bear Lake and to Coronation Gulf; corresponding 
roughly with the line of longitude 117° West, 

Its extreme length from east to west is nine hundred and fifty 
miles, and its breadth from north to south six hundred. It includes 
an area of about four hundred and twelve thousand five hundred 
square miles. 

Only one-sixth part of this section of territory, forming its south- 
west angle, from Bear Lake to a little east of the east end of 
Slave Lake, and nearly on that course to latitude 60°, is wooded. 

The remainder, forming five sixths of its area, is the treeless 
Artie desert of the Barren Ground. 

Its surface is varied with rocky hills of moderate altitude ; some, 
however, as at Cape Barrow, rising to an elevation of fifteen 
hundred feet. It is watered by one large river, the Great Fish or 
Back river, and many smaller streams, and lakes. 

Its vegetation consists of a close covering of lichens where it is 
dry, mixed with reindeer moss in moister spots. Other plants 
flourish where the soil is suitable, with depressed willows, blue 
berries, bear berries, &c. In favorable sheltered meadows grass 
and bents flourish, and many flowering plants. Notwithstanding 
the generally desolate character of the country, it, in parts, affords 
sustenance for herds of hundreds of reindeer and of the musk-ox, 
as described by Capt. Back, on the river to which his name has 
been given. 

The Indian cannot live in it in winter on account of the want 
of fuel. What little is used by the Esquimax, who inhabit the 
coast, is the oil and blubber their fisheries afford ; their fuel is got 
in the deep. 

Even the reindeer retire from it to the bordering woods in 
winter, to shelter them from the season's storms. They go in 
numerous bands by certain passes among the lakes and hills, 
where the Esquimax and Northern Indians waylay and slaughter 
them for winter use, sometimes with the most wasteful reckless- 
ness. 







22 



If the natives could be taught to tame the reindeer, which is 
said to be easily done, and use them as domestic herds, as the 
Laplanders do, they might live in greater comfort and security. 

The chief permanent inhabitant of this vast desolate region is 
the Musk Ox, the cotemporary of the mammoth and other extinct 
animals. He feeds in winter on the high spots where the vege- 
tation, preserved with all its juice by the sudden severity of the 
winter's frost, is bared of snow by the winds. 

His extinct cotemporaries are gone, and the buffalo and the 
moose deer are rapidly following ; even the lion of Africa is hunted 
in his home ; but the inhospitable desolation of this, the only abode 
of the musk ox, will be his security. 

In connection with this section, its probable mineral wealth 
may be noticed. Speaking of the country north of Lake Winnipeg, 
Sir John Richardson says that Government, or the Hudson's Bay 
Company, should ascertain, without delay, the " mineral treasures 
it contains," and adds, " I have little doubt of many of the acces- 
sible districts abounding in metallic wealth of far greater value 
than all the returns of the Fur trade can ever yield." This obser- 
vation would seem to apply not only to the western skirts of the 
band of primary formation immediately north of Lake Winnipeg, 
but also to this section as far north as Copper Mine Eiver. 



CHAPTER V. 

THE NORTH McKENZIE RIVER COUNTRY. 

That part of the great central Silurian plain, west of the fore- 
going section, extending from latitude 60° K to the Artie Sea, 
and from the west edge of the primary belt to the Rocky Moun- 
tains, may be designated as the North McKenzie River Country. 

It is about seven hundred and forty miles in length from north 
to south, with a breadth of four hundred miles at latitude 60°, 
varying to over six hundred miles, where it meets the Artie Sea ; 
and contains an area of two hundred and seventy-four thousand 
square miles. 

Though lying in precisely the same latitude, its climate is not 
so intensely severe as that of the foregoing section ; from which it 
differs much in other respects, that render it of more value com- 
paratively. 

Instead of being a rocky, barren, treeless waste, chiefly of 
infertile primary formation, like the preceding, it is, as mentioned, 
a Silurian plain, more or less wooded throughout, almost to the 







shore of the Artie. In the southern half of it barley and garden 
vegetables can be raised. It is traversed by the McKenzie, a first 
class navigable river, and it abounds in rich beds of lignite coal, 
with, in parts, liquid bitumen, which may ultimately prove of 
some value commercially. 

The effect of its rich alluvial soil, and some superiority in 
climate, due perhaps in part to the prevalence of limestone, is 
such as to admit of the growth of trees, as far as the mouth of the 
McKenzie. Stunted generally in the most northerly parts, and of 
the hardiest kind — white spruce — but in sheltered positions, some- 
times attaining a useful size. Even at the north-eastern extremity 
of this section, at the mouth of the Copper Mine River, in a shel- 
tered grove, one is noticed as being thirty-seven inches in girth, 
and on Kendal River, near the same locality, in a line grove of 
white spruce, one was found sixty-three inches in girth, twenty 
feet without taper, and fifty feet in height; but such trees are 
exceedingly rare in the north end of this section. 

Being of Silurian and more recent formation, and generally a 
plain, it would have been a good agricultural country had its 
climate admitted. Such as it is, though its southern boundary is 
the limit of profitable wheat cultivation, Col. Lefroy and Sir 
John Eichardson say, that at Tort Simpson, a hundred and fifty 
miles further north, with a mean summer temperature of 59J Q 
Fah., barley grows well, and the latter says that at Fort Norman, 
three hundred and forty miles north of lat. 60°, (the assumed 
southern boundary of this section,) potatoes are raised, and in 
good seasons barley ripens well, and that lat. 65° may be con- 
sidered as the northern limit of the growth of barley. He adds, 
that at Fort Good Hope, a hundred and eighty miles north of Fort 
Norman, that is fifty north of the Arctic Circle, turnips attain the 
weight of two or three pounds in favourable seasons, but barley 
has failed there when tried. Fort Simpson is evidently far within 
the limit of barley cultivation, for which, on the authority of 
Ernan, quoted by Sir John Eichardson, it is necessary only that 
the mean temperature of any one of the three summer months 
shall not fall below 47° 75 Fahr. At Fort Simpson, the mean of 
each of five months is above that, being for Mav, 48° 16 ; June, 
63°64; July, 60°97; August, 53°84; September, 49°10. The 
three winter months, however, are there extremely cold, the 
mean being 10° below zero ; that of the spring months, 26° 66 
above zero, and of autumn, 27°34. 

If, therefore, we draw a line across this territory at lat. 65° K, 
we find that we have in the south part of it, an area of a hundred 
and twenty thousand square miles, which, with the necessary 
allowance for waste lands and positions unfavourable in elevation 







or aspect, nearly all admits of the growth of barley as well as 
vegetables, and that must admit of the growth of rye in the part 
of it adjoining the limit of profitable wheat cultivation. 

That is to say, we have there a country resembling in extent, 
and in partial fitness for cultivation, the Russian Province of 
Vologda, which lies in a similar Silurian formation, and is 
embraced in the same manner between the northern limits of 
wheat and barley cultivation. 

Of Vologda a great part is unoccupied, but for the chase or fur 
trade; yet such as it is, with much marshy and sandy land, it 
sustains about eight hundred thousand inhabitants. But it is to 
be observed, that Vologda lies on the northern Dwina, which, 
though insignificant compared with the McKenzie, leads to a 
seaport open during a short season, an advantage greatly in its 
favour, in giving value to its products. 

The Eiver McKenzie, though not giving that advantage, pre- 
sents some others that may in some degree make up for the want 
of it. It traverses this section of territory diagonally, presenting 
a course of a thousand miles of deep, uninterrupted, navigation, 
(besides Slave Lake, three hundred miles in length, which con- 
nects with the Arctic Sea.) Sir Alexander McKenzie states its 
depth to be from four to fifty fathoms, and its breadth from two 
miles to a half mile, running six miles an hour at the latter 
breadth, and twelve fathoms deep. This, with the usual large 
deductions necessary in such calculations, gives a passing volume 
of upwards of a million of cubic yards of water per minute, double 
Niagara or the Eiver Missouri, which it well might be, as it drains 
both sides of the Rocky Mountains. The Missouri drains but one. 

The McKenzie offers a great navigable communication for 
large vessels, with coal on its banks, connecting the vast interior 
region south of it, suitable for cultivation, with the rich fisheries 
of the Arctic sea. 

The whale fisheries it leads to, inside of Behring's Straits, are 
the richest known, and are fished extensively by American whale 
fishers, who have to sail sixteen thousand miles to get there. 
When our great central prairie country is occupied by millions of 
people, they will have but one-tenth of the distance to reach these 
fisheries by the McKenzie, to obtain the products of the sea ; it 
will no doubt then be a highway of some importance. 

Sir Alexander McKenzie's journal of his exploration of this 
river is simple but very interesting. The heroic age of discovery 
lasts long — we are scarcely through it yet. It has its heroes, and. 
he was one of them. 

His voyages through this continent to -the Arctic and Pacific 
Oceans may be said to have first lifted the veil that till then 
shrouded the vast intervening regions in obscurity. 









On the 3rd of June, 1789, he left Fort Chipeweyan on the Lake 
of the Hills, on his voyage to the Arctic, with all the difficulties 
and hardships before him of first exploration in unknown, in- 
hospitable regions, inhabited by savage tribes. Even his Indian 
guides had no experience of the way before them, deserting him 
through fear of the unknown, like that felt by the sailors of 
Columbus. 

He had but limited supplies, for his small force depended chiefly 
on what they killed. 

His narrative is simple, but the incidents are grand. They 
passed great plains of unknown extent, great tributaries like the 
Eiver of the Mountains, half a mile in width, — lofty mountains 
with their summits clad in snow or veiled in clouds and mist. 
They looked upon the vast panorama that took day after day and 
week after week to unfold, for the first time since creation, to 
civilized man. 

Then comes the region of eternal frost under the surface, and 
stunted trees ; — the increasing terror of his men, — the alarming 
stories of the Indians, that they would be old men and grey before 
they returned, if they ever did, from the regions where there was 
no game to kill, inhabited by terrible and cruel nations.— the Island 
of the Evil Manitou, who swallowed every man that came his 
way — and beyond that the land of gigantic men who could kill 
other men with their eyes. 

Then the arrival at the Esquimaux country, and the astonish- 
ment of his men "at the sun that did not set, and the tide. Still 
singularly vigorous vegetation for the high latitude, 63 Q to 68° 
X. — and abundance of berries — innumerable islands in the river 
approaching its mouth, covered with trees of a small growth, and 
in places spruce and fir of a larger size. The banks, where high, 
wooded partly with birch and fir ; and the ground in places covered 
with short grass and flowers, though the frost was only four inches 
out of the earth on the 12th of July. 

McKenzie was then two thousand miles beyond the Lake of the 
Woods, in direct distance north-westward, and three thousand miles 
in direct distance from Montreal — or as far from that city as it is 
from the mouth of the Eiver Orinoco in South America. 

This comparison is given to assist in realizing the extent of 
country that we may now acquire, — and of that extent three- 
quarters of the distance is through territory which, by way of Eed 
Eiver, is fit for agricultural occupation. 

McKenzie returned to Fort Chipeweyan on the 12th September, 
having performed his voyage of three thousand miles in a hundred 
days, showing that so long, at least, annually this great Arctic Eiver 
is open for navigation. In returning, the air for some part of the 







way was laden with a heavy smell of sulphur, which is found to be 
caused by the burning of coal in the banks of the river, — it was 
the lignite coal that is so abundant in this territory. 

Lignite varies much in quality. Its average heating power may 
be taken as equal to that of five-sevenths of an equal weight of 
good Newcastle coal, though it often exceeds that proportion. The 
lignite coal of Nanaimo in Vancouver's Island is only ten per cent, 
less valuable than the true coal of the Carboniferous epoch, accord- 
ing to Dr. Hector. 

Its prevalence in immense quantities and in positions where it 
can be most easily made available, in a climate where fuel will be 
so much needed, the comparative fertility of the soil of this section, 
and its great navigable river and the fisheries connected with it, 
will no doubt ultimately lead to the partial occupation of the 
southern half of it, where hardy grains and vegetables can be culti- 
vated. Therefore, though owing to its remoteness and the exceed- 
ing coldness of its climate, it is utterly useless now, excepting for 
its fur trade, we should not consider it altogether valueless with 
reference to the future. 

Speaking of the possible future occupation of the south half of 
this section of territory, notwithstanding the severity of its climate, 
it is worthy of remark, that in the province of Vologda, to which 
we have compared it, hemp and flax are cultivated with success. 
Even in the province of Archangel, north of it, with a climate 
much more unfavorable, considerable quantities of hemp and flax 
are raised, and coarse linen cordage and mats are manufactured. 
Hemp and flax, with cordage and linseed from these provinces, are 
the principle articles of export at Archangel. It is reasonable to 
think that in the future they may be cultivated and manufactured 
in this territory. 

This observation, however, applies with much more force and 
more immediately to the country south of Hudson's Bay, already 
noticed, as well as to the great Central Prairie Country, the chief 
subject of this pamphlet. As they are remote from markets, the 
cost for transport of flax exported, especially if manufactured, 
will be insignificant compared with that of ordinary agricultural 
exports ; an important advantage, even with improved means of 
•communication. 



CHAPTEE VI. 

THE PELLY 11IVER AND MOUNTAIN COUNTRY. 

Continuing to notice the less important or comparatively 
valueless sections of territory before directing attention to the great 







central prairie land, the last of these inferior territories may be 
designated the Pelly River and Mountain Country. 

It is a little more than a thousand miles in length, northward 
from Simpson's River, the northern boundary of British Columbia, 
to the Arctic sea at Point Demarcation, where it terminates in an 
acute angle ; and five hundred in breadth, from the eastern crest of 
the Eocky Mountains to Mount Saint Elias, on the coast of 
the Pacific Ocean. It contains an area of about two hundred and 
eighty-five thousand superficial miles. 

This section of territory merits separate description, inasmuch as 
it differs as widely in its general character from those previously 
noticed as they do from each other. It differs especially from the 
last described, which is generally a plain country, while this, with 
little exception, is a vast mountain region, equal in extent to the 
Kingdoms of Norway and Sweden taken together. 

In its mountainous character it chiefly resembles Norway. Had 
it embraced the coast of the Pacific and the islands along it, the 
resemblance would have beeen greater, for it then would have pos- 
sessed a seaboard rendered temperate by the warm- winds of the 
Pacific ; but from Mount St. Elias down to the boundary of British 
Columbia, a narrow stripe of American, formerly Prussian territory, 
intervenes, along the Pacific coast, reaching back to the summit of 
the nearest mountain range, but nowhere exceeding thirty-five 
miles from the shore. 

Though possessing a less genial climate than Norway and Swe- 
den, the resemblance to them may be traced a little further. As 
little more than one-sixteenth part of the surface of Sweden is 
classed as arable land in cultivation, including meadows, and only 
about one-hundredth part of Norway, this territory is probably not 
much inferior to them in extent of land fit for such cultivation as 
the climate may admit of. 

The Eocky Mountains on the east side, the Blue Eange or Peak 
Mountains and the Cascade Mountains and Coast Range run nearly 
parallel to each other, north- westwardly through this territory, with 
many intermediate ranges and groups. 

The Eocky Mountains, whose highest peak rises to sixteen 
thousand feet, at the sources of the Athabasca, gradually decline in 
height northward, to four and five thousand feet above the sea. The 
Coast Range, on the contrary, attains its greatest height at Mount 
St. Elias, which is stated to be 17,970 feet in altitude. 

These ranges cover much of this territory ; but there are valleys 
between and among them, of considerable extent : not much known 
as yet, as might be expected of a country so remote ; — as Alpine in 
character as Switzerland and Tyrol and eleven times as large as 
both together ; presenting incomparably greater obstacles to explo- 



28 

ration, in the coldness of its climate, and from its being uninhabited 
except by savages. • 

It otters a far more interesting field of study for the geologist 
and the naturalist than the regions east of it already noticed. 

It is a country that presents the greatest possible obstacles of 
climate and surface to military operations ; a country utterly im- 
pregnable from its character and extent, should it ever become 
inhabited, as it no doubt ultimately will, where it admits of being 
so, as similar countries in the old world have. It is therefore a 
great natural bulwark to the plain country east of it. 

The cold climate of much of the southern part of this section 
of territory is due in a great degree to its elevation. Col. Lefroy 
argues that the part of it in which the sources of the Peace River 
lie, must be nearly six thousand feet above the sea. At Pelly's 
Banks, lat. 61°30', the valley of Pelly River is fourteen hundred 
feet above the sea ; and there the mean temperature of the month 
of January is nearly 22° below zero, or nine and a half degrees 
colder than at Fort Simpson, on the McKenzie, nearly in the same 
latitude (61°51 / N".,) three hundred miles eastward, but which is 
only four hundred feet above the sea. In April the difference is 
only five and a quarter degrees, and their summers are probably 
equal ; a temperature which will admit of the cultivation of barley 
and vegetables at Pelly's Banks. 

Pelly River is a branch of the great" River You can, that dis- 
charges at the entrance of Behring's Straits, after a course of 
eighteen hundred miles, from the source of the Lewis Branch of 
the river Pelly, which flows for seven hundred miles through this 
territory. 

The temperature of Fort Youcan, Lat. 66° K, at the junction 
of the Pelly and Youcan, in late Russian America, may be taken as 
that of the north end of this territory near it in the same latitude. 
The mean temperatures of its seasons are, spring 14° 04, summer 
5907I — autumn 17°33 above, and winter 23°80 below zero ; — 
showing its summer to be warmer than that of Fort Simpson, 
which is only 59°48. From which it would certainly appear that 
barley and vegetables might be cultivated there and all along the 
valley of the Pelly River, within this territory, as well as at Fort 
Simpson. The temperature of Youcan is more than sufficient for 
the growing of barley, by Email's rule before quoted, that the 
mean of none of the three summer months shall fall below 47° 75, 
— for the mean temperature at Youcan for June is 53°49, July 
65° 75, and August 59°90, though the mean for the whole year is 
only 16°85. 

" Pelly's Banks " is in the middle of this territory, with the 
disadvantage of great elevation ; and Youcan is nearly at the Artie 







29 






Circle, — towards the south-west, near the coast of the Pacific, and 
At lower levels, the climate must necessarily be widely different. 
To judge of the climate of these more favorable parts we may 
take, for data, the temperature of the seasons at Sitka, on the Pa- 
cific, about a degree further north than the south end of this terri- 
tory, and about a hundred miles westward of it. Here we have a 
striking contrast to the preceding ; Sitka has a warm winter and a 
cool summer ; the mean of the former being 34° 70 and the latter 
only 56°24; that of spring 42° 2 8, and autumn 48°49 — with a mean 
annual temperature of 45°44 — much the same as that of Buffalo 
or Toronto; or 2J° warmer than that of Montreal, and sixteen 
•degrees warmer than that city in winter ; but yet with a summer 
inferior to that of Youcan or Fort Simpson for ripening grain. 

We have here, therefore, between these points an extreme con- 
trast of climates, extreme difference between the heat of summer 
and the cold of winter on the one hand, and extreme want of 
difference between the temperature of the seasons on the other, to 
such a degree as to prevent the ripening of the grain at Sitka, not- 
withstanding the high mean temperature of the year. 

Consequently, somewhere between these points, a little removed 
from the too equalizing influence of the Pacific, and its humidity, in 
the valleys on the south-west side of this territory, we should find, 
with a gradually diminishing annual temperature, and an increasing 
difference between summer and winter, and less humidity, localities 
with climates resembling those of Montreal and Quebec. 

Consistently with the facts mentioned, physical geographers 
have drawn the line of New York mean winter temperature from 
twenty to one hundred and twenty miles within this territory, 
running north-westwardly through it, for six hundred and fifty 
miles. But this line must only be taken as applicable to low lands 
and valleys : — it will generally be exceedingly deflected and often 
largely interrupted by ridges and highlands. 

When this peculiarity of temperature of the south-west side of 
this territory is taken into consideration, together with what is 
known of it from exploration, it would appear that there are some 
favorable parts of it, of considerable value from their position and 
mineral resources, and their fitness for cultivation, owing to the 
quality of the land. 

By Mr. Downie's report of exploration of Skeena or Simpson 
river, which forms the boundary between this territory and the 
Province of British Columbia, it appears that after passing the coast 
range the valleys present extensive tracts of good land well suited 
for settlement. He took two days to traverse one of them, which 
he says is as fine a farming country as one could wish to see. On 
a large tributary on the north side, within this territory, the land is 







30 

described as good and well adapted for farming ; and there the 
Indians grow plenty of potatoes. He describes fine flats running 
back to the mountains, which recede four or five miles from the 
river ; speaks of the Skeena country being in parts the best look- 
ing mineral country he had seen in British Columbia ; alludes to 
gold which he finds there ; mentions that the river Skeena passes 
through an extensive coal country, the seams cut through by the 
river varying from three to thirty -five feet in thickness ; superior to 
any that he had seen in Vancouver's Island, (where the mines of 
Nanaimo are already of value commercially,) or in British Colum- 
bia ; and in other reports he says, salmon and other fish are in 
inconceivable abundance. 

Such advantages may not be common, and may be limited to a 
small part of this territory ; but good lands with a moderate climate, 
on fine salmon rivers, with valuable timber forests and beds of coal, 
situated within a hundred miles of the continually open navigation 
of the Pacific and its commerce, taken together with the gold-bear- 
ing character of the country, (for which the river Stikene to the 
northward of the Simpson is already famous,) render the southern 
part of this territory of considerable immediate, and still greater 
future value. 



CHAPTEE VII. 

THE RED RIVER, SASKATCHEWAN AND PEACE RIVER COUNTRY, OR 
CENTRAL PRAIRIE LAND— POSITION AND EXTENT. 

The remaining section of the great north-west territory — that 
which is of by far the greatest intrinsic value, and of the greatest 
relative importance to the Dominion of Canada — may, in the ab- 
sence of any general name, be designated as the Eed Eiver, Saskat- 
chewan and Peace Eiver country, or Central Prairie Land ; using 
the latter term merely to signify that prairie land is more or less 
prevalent throughout the greater part of it. 

It may be described as bounded on the south by the line of lati- 
tude 49° K, the Northern boundary of the United States, on the 
west by the crests of the Eocky Mountains, which divide it from 
the Province of British Columbia, as far northward as Peace Eiver; 
on the north by the parallel of latitude 60° 1ST., and on the east by 
Lake Winnipeg with its tributary waters, the Eiver Winnipeg and 
the Lake of the Woods ; and from the north end of Lake Winni- 
peg by a line drawn north-westward through the west end of Lake 
Athabasca to the line of lat. 60° "N. 










31 

Its length, from the outlet of the Lake of the Woods westward 
to the sources of the Saskatchewan, is eight hundred and eighty 
miles. Its breadth northward from lat. 49° to 60° K, is seven 
hundred and sixty miles. It contains an area of about four hundred 
and eighty thousand square miles ; that is to say, an area equal to 
that of France and Germany with Belgium and Switzerland added 
together, — or about ten times that of the State of New York. 

SUITABLENESS FOR SETTLEMENT, AND ITS IMPORTANCE. 

It is highly important to observe that nearly the whole of this 
section of territory, within the boundaries stated, excepting where 
cold, arising from great elevation, renders it otherwise, is as suit- 
able in climate for agricultural occupation as the parts of Canada 
and the Maritime Provinces already settled or now being settled, 
taken together. That is to say that the best parts of this section 
of territory are fully as rich in soil, and, where cultivated, yield 
fully as heavy returns of wheat as the best parts of Upper Canada ; 
and that with little exception the most northerly parts of it admit 
of as good crops of wheat or other grain being raised as the least 
fovourable parts of Lower Canada already settled or being now 
opened for settlement. Besides which, a great portion of it pre- 
sents the very great advantage of being ready for the plough, 
without the trouble of clearing arid taking out stumps and stones. 

The acquisition of this territory, or the effective opening of it as 
a Crown colony with a view to federation with us, which is much 
the same, is therefore of the utmost importance to Canada, alike- 
for immediate use for the extension of native settlement and as 
a receptacle for many immigrants who go to a foreign country 
to obtain such prairie land ; and also, and chiefly, as a necessary 
basis for that degree of strength of population essential for the 
maintenance of our national security in the future. 

TOPOGRAPHICAL CHARACTER. 

This section of territory forms part of the great plain that lies 
along the eastern base of the Bocky Mountains, already spoken of 
in describing the McKenzie Biver country. 

This great interior plain extends from the Gulf of Mexico to the 
Artie Ocean, with but little interruption from lesser ranges and 
occasional groups of hills of insignificant elevation compared with 
the great range that bounds it to the westward. The water-sheds 
of its greatest river basins are but elevations of the same great 
sloping plain. Even the great parallel Azoic belt, the continua- 
tion of the Laurentides, that divides it from that other great Silu- 







rian plain which encircles Hudson's Bay, presents but little inter- 
ruption to the gradually descending slope of the continent from the 
Eocky Mountains eastward. 

It is described as presenting a general similarity of geological 
character, varying as the different formations, from the Silurian 
upwards, exhibit themselves in greater or lesser breadth. 

Within the section of territory under our consideration, the 
Silurian formation, that prevails along the eastern side of the 
plain, dips westward under the Devonian, Cretaceous and Tertiar- 
ies, to rise again in the ridges of the Eocky Mountains. 

The absence of granite or other primitive rock, in the Eocky 
Mountains, from lat. 49° as far as 52° N"., is noted as remarkable 
by Sir John Eichardson. By the exploration of Capt. Palliser and 
Dr. Hector, they are shown to consist of Silurian and carboniferous 
rocks. Far beyond the scope of their examination, these moun- 
tains appear to be the same in geological character. Where 
traversed by the Peace Eiver about lat. 56° K, Sir Alexander 
McKenzie describes the bed of that river to be of limestone, and 
the mountains as solid masses of the same. 

This formation of the Eocky Mountains is important. The 
prevalence of limestone has no doubt contributed fertility to the 
alluvial lands and low prairies of the plain country below ; and 
the presence of the carboniferous rocks is a favorable feature. 
Sir Eoderick Murchison, in passing a well-merited encomium on 
the valuable exploratory operations of Dr. Hector, observes 
that he shows the " structure of the chain, with its axis of slaty 
subscrystalline rocks overlaid by limestone of Devonian and car- 
boniferous age, and flanked on the eastern side by carboniferous 
sandstone, representing probably our own coal fields, the whole 
followed by those Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits which con- 
stitute the subsoil of the vast and rich prairies watered by the north 
and south Saskatchewan and their affluents." 

This encomium was justly due to the Doctor, but hardly so to 
the South Branch of the Saskatchewan; the dry prairies that 
prevail on much of it resemble the steppes of Eusssia in Europe, 
of which, as Mr. Hauxhausen says, "some consider the larger 
portion as unfertilizible deserts," while others think they require 
" nothing but hands and judicious culture to convert them into rich 
and fertile places," but adds that he thinks the truth lies between 
these extremes. 

However gratifying the prospect may be of discovering true 
coal in the carboniferous formation of the Eocky Mountains, it has 
not yet been realized, either from the explorations yet made being 
very limited and imperfect, or from there being no true coal 
measures there : for it is to be borne in mind that the presence of 







33 



the carboniferous formation merely indicates that it is there, and 
there only, that true coal will be found if it exists at all, or in 
useful quantities. Thus we have the carboniferous formation on 
the south coast of the district of Gaspe ; its presence led to exten- 
sive speculation and the formation of a mining company; but 
thouo-h it, the carboniferous formation, exists to a total thickness of 
three hundred feet, no coal to warrant mining was ever discovered. 

Along the eastern base of the Eocky Mountains there extends a 
broad belt of geological formation, throughout the entire length, 
northward of this section of territory, (nearly a thousand miles,) 
and beyond it to the Arctic Ocean, as already mentioned, containing 
an inexhaustible amount of lignite coal ; it has been seen in many 
places in beds from two to eight feet thick, and in some parts over 
a breadth of nearly two hundred miles. 

As this immense region of lignite coal lies on the upper courses 
of great navigable rivers, which flow through vast fertile prairie 
countries on their lower courses, containing much of the richest 
wheat-growing ground in this continent, the value of it as a 
perpetual supply of fuel for them is incalculable; it evidently 
much more than compensates for the infertile character of a large 
part of the dry prairie lands adjoining the boundary of the United 
States. 

FORM AND NATURAL SUBDIVISIONS. 

On the map of the section of territory now before us, this 
Central Prairie Land, bounded as mentioned, is an irregular 
diamond-shaped figure inclining westward. It is eight hundred 
and eighty miles broad at its base, on lat. 49° N., diminishing north- 
ward to three hundred miles in width on lat. 60° N. The length of 
its eastern boundary is a thousand and fifty miles, and its western 
one, by the curve of the Eocky Mountains, is nine hundred and 
fifty miles. 

Its south-east angle, in the Lake of the Woods, is two hundred 
and fifty miles west with a little northing, from Fort William, on 
Lake Superior. Its north-east angle is six hundred miles due west 
from Hudson's Bay, and its north-west angle is at the same distance 
due east from the Pacific. Its east and west outlines are, at their 
middle parts, about four hundred miles in direct distance from 
Hudson's Bay and the Pacific, respectively. It therefore occupies 
a central position in the continent. 

The south part of it, two hundred and eighty thousand square 

miles in area, or considerably more than the half of it, lies upon 

the waters of the Eiver Saskatchewan, and the Eed Eiver and 

Assiniboine, and other tributaries of Lake Winnipeg. Next north- 

3 







ward, the head waters of the Churchill or Beaver Eiver, occupy a 
triangular area of fifty thousand miles on the east side. Of the 
remaining part, north-westward, a hundred and twenty thousand 
miles lie on the Athabasca, and on the Peace Eiver north of it; and 
about thirty thousand square miles of the north-west corner lie on 
the waters of the Eiver of the Mountains, and Hay Eiver ; the last 
four rivers are branches of the Eiver McKenzie. 

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 

Before going into details as to the character of these subdivi- 
sions, it may be well to make a few observations of a general nature, 
on tins section of territory. 

Its elevation, though considerable, is not so great as might be 
supposed from its central position in the continent. 

Its lowest levels are the two great lakes, Winnipeg and Atha- 
basca, nearly at its south-east and north-east ends, which receive 
the waters of five-sixths of its area, and the Eiver of the Mountains 
at Fort Liard, which is estimated to be only four or five hundred 
feet in height. Lake Winnipeg, which receives the waters of the 
Eiver Winnipeg and others on the east side, besides the Eed Eiver 
and Assiniboine, and the Eiver Saskatchewan, on the west, is six 
hundred and twenty feet above the level of the sea. Lake Atha- 
basca, which receives the Eiver Athabasca from the south, and 
others rivers from the east, and connects at its discharge with Peace 
Eiver, from the west, is six hundred feet above the sea. 

Having these for the lowest levels, the general fall of the sur- 
face towards them will be better understood by tracing the elevation 
of the circuit of this section of territory. The Lake of the Woods 
is three hundred and sixty-one feet above Lake Winnipeg, or nine 
hundred and eighty-nine feet above the sea. It is in a country of 
lake-like marshes of great extent, on the same level as itself, or 
nearly so. The elevation of Pembina near long. 97° W., where the 
Eed Eiver intersects the boundary of U. S., lat. 49° K, is estimated 
at nine hundred feet. Half way between Pembina and the Eocky 
Mountains, the boundary line rises on the "Grand Coteau du Mis- 
souri," the high arid plateau dividing the valley of the latter from 
that of the Saskatchewan, upwards of fifteen hundred feet in height, 
and gradually ascending till, at the entrance of the Kootanee pass, 
the plain terminates with an elevation of four thousand feet, and 
the further ascent to the summit of the pass is two thousand feet. 
This elevation of the plain at the foot of the mountains continues 
northward ; the summits of the passes varying between five and 
six thousand feet, and the peaks of the mountains rising from seven 
or eight thousand to fifteen, and the highest to sixteen thousand 
feet above the sea. Speaking of this elevated country at the foot 







35 

of the Eocky Mountains, between Saskatchewan and Peace Eiver, 
Col. Lefroy observes that "it is a district remarkable for its gradual 
and regular ascent, preserving much of the character of a plain 
country." 

Near the boundary of the United States and south of lat. 51° 
N, the base of the Eocky Mountains is not more than forty miles 
in width. They attain their greatest height about lat. 52° N, and 
also their greatest width, which is about a hundred miles. 

Only between lat. 51° and 52 Q N, and a little above the latter 
parallel, are glaciers to be found. There close together, by Dr. 
Hector's valuable map, about lat. 51° 40 K, long. 117° W., in 
a grand nucleus of lofty summit glaciers, where the range 
is a hundred miles in breadth, the North and South Branches of 
the Saskatchewan have their sources, but a few miles apart; 
diverging to meet again, on their way to the Atlantic, after follow- 
ing their separate courses of eight hundred miles. Close between 
them rises one of the sources of the Columbia, flowing to the 
Pacific ; and in glaciers near them, about lat. 52° 17 N, is the 
source of the Athabasca — the remotest source of the Eiver Mc- 
Kenzie, which takes its course of two thousand miles to the Arctic 
sea. 

Elsewhere, Captain Blackiston and others describe the Eocky 
Mountains as being well- wooded, excepting their summits ; the 
timber on the eastern side inferior to that of the western ; and 
add, that perpetual snow is only seen on some of the higher 
peaks. This peculiarity, we may observe, is the natural result 
of the high level of the plain ; the line of perpetual snow depend- 
ing more on the height above the mean elevation of the earth's 
surface, in the region adjoining, than its height over the level of 
the sea. 

Eeturning to the elevation of the circuit of outline, on attaining 
latitude 60° N., the elevation of the mountains and the plain 
diminishes rapidly. Fort Liard, on the Eiver of the Mountains, 
near that parallel, though only fifty miles east from the mountains, 
is only four or five hundred feet above the sea. 

This depression of level in northing is favorable to cultivation. 
Had the elevation risen with the latitude, or even continued una- 
bated, the climate would have been less suitable for the growth of 
grain. Fort Liard is the lowest point in this section of territory ; 
and the altitude can be but little greater where the parallel of lati- 
tude 60° N crosses Hay Eiver, and meets the assumed east outline 
of this section. 

The country traversed by this east outline, rises but little above 
the height of Lake "Winnipeg, excepting the northerly part between 
Beaver Eiver and Lake Athabasca, There this assumed boundary 







passes over a great bend of the Laurentian formation. Even a 
hundred miles westward, where that formation joins the Silurian, 
Methy Lake is fourteen hundred and ninety feet* above the sea. 

This tract of Laurentian country will be valueless unless it be 
for such minerals as it may be found to offer, near the junction of 
these formations. 

Turning to the interior, we find at Fort Dunvegan, on Peace 
River, a hundred and fifty miles east from the Rocky Mountains, 
the plateau sloping from their base has declined to sixteen hundred 
feet, while the river is only nine hundred and ten feet above the 
sea, or three hundred and ten above its mouth at Lake Athabasca, 
from which it is three hundred miles distant in a direct line, 
though double that by the winding course of the river. The ele- 
vation of Fort Edmonton, on the North Saskatchewan, two hun- 
dred miles east from the mountains, is eighteen hundred feet ; that 
of Carleton House, near the Forks, at three hundred miles in direct 
distance eastward, is eleven hundred feet ; and Cumberland House, 
two hundred miles further east, and a hundred miles in direct dis- 
tance from Lake Winnipeg, is nine hundred feet above the sea, or 
two hundred and seventy above the mouth of the Saskatchewan at 
the Lake. 

These points being on the banks of rivers, are the lower levels, 
and indicate the general inclination of the plain. It is only a com- 
parative plain, however, varied in surface by scattering groups of 
hills, rising to six hundred, and occasionally a thousand feet and 
upwards over the plains below them ; or the equally lofty edges of 
high plateaus, forming long ranges of highlands towards the lower 
levels. 

Of the former, the Riding Mountains, west of Lake Manitobah, 
have an altitude of a thousand and thirty feet above that Lake, or 
seventeen hundred feet over the sea. The north-east face of the 
Missouri Plateau advances towards the South Branch of the Sas- 
katchewan and River Qu'Appelle, with an elevation of six hundred 
feet above the plains ; showing a tertiary formation, with brown 
coal and silicified wood. Its north-west face-, under the name of 
the Cypress Hills, rises to the height of four thousand two hun- 
dred feet above the sea. Its southern slope is watered by tribu- 
taries of the Missouri, that here extend into this territory. The 
Hand Hills, north of Red Deer River, long. Ill £° W., rise to the 
height of three thousand eight hundred feet above the sea ; present- 
ing the same formation, capped with tertiary shingle beds of the 
highest plains. 

* 1,540 feet by Col. Lefroy. 







37 

It is interesting to observe that while the Kooky Mountains 
present everywhere evidence of disruption and upheaval in their 
origin, these hills and high ranges of the plain exhibit with equal 
uniformity, in their abraded strata, that they were formed by 
denudation by water ; by the scoping out of the plains around 
them. 

By the elevations given it will be seen that the height of the 
sloping plateau, forming the chief part of this section of territory, 
is considerable ; but it is worthy of remark that it nevertheless 
has in some degree the character of a basin. We have noticed 
the great elevation of its western edge. ' That of its eastern Lau- 
rentian boundary is in parts considerable. The Branch of that 
range which bounds it at its south-east angle, dividing it from the 
basin of Lake Superior, is from fifteen to eighteen hundred feet 
in height over the sea, at the lowest parts. The Lake of the 
Woods is five hundred feet lower than Lake Itasca, the source of 
the Mississippi, immediately south of it. Fort Garry, on Bed Biver, 
is twelve hundred feet lower than Fort Clarke, on the Missouri, 
which lies south-west of it, Carleton House on the Saskatchewan, 
is about a thousand feet lower than Fort Union on the Missouri, 
which lies south by east from it ; and we have already seen that 
the ridge of the Coteau de Missouri, dividing its waters from the 
basin of the Saskatchewan, rises to the height of four thousand 
two hundred feet above the sea. 

The basin forming the chief part of this section of territory is 
therefore about a thousand feet lower, generally, than the northern 
parts of Minnesota and Dakota adjoining it. 

The term Central Brairie Land as applied to it, is, as before 
mentioned, merely intended to indicate that in it prairie land is to 
be found more or less prevalent ; with this distinction, that in the 
southern half of it, the extent of prairie land very much exceeds 
that of wood land ; while in the northern part of it, say from about 
lat. 54° to lat. 60° N., the country is generally wooded, though 
prairies are interspersed through it, some of great extent. Brairies 
extend as far north as the east branch of Hay Biver, on which 
they terminate near lat. 60°, and as far east as Methy Bortage, 
between the waters of the Churchill and Athabasca Bivers, near 
the eastern boundary assumed for this section. Brairie land, 
between these points, occurs so continuously as to admit of herds 
of horses being sent through, as mentioned by Sir John Bichardson, 
and feeding by the way : a condition evidently favorable to the 
extension of settlement, as well as indicative of land suitable for 
agricultural occupation. 

In so great an extent of country there is naturally much variety 
in character and quality of soil. To assist in describing it, it 










may be suitable to do so by its rivers, commencing with the 
southern part of it watered by the Saskatchewan and other tribu- 
taries of Lake Winnipeg. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

LAKE WINNIPEG AND ITS TRIBUTARIES. 

Looking at the map, we have lake Winnipeg in the south-east 
part of this section, forming there part of its boundary. Lake 
Winnipeg is two hundred and eighty miles in length, and fifty- 
seven in greatest breadth. Its southern extremity is three hundred 
and fifty miles west-north-west from Fort William on Lake Superior. 
Its elevation above the sea is about six hundred and twenty-eight 
feet. From the mouth of the Eiver Winnipeg, near its south end, 
to its northern extremity, it is the boundary between the generally 
rocky Laurentian Country and the Silurian lime-stone formation of 
the east side of the great central plain. 

It is very shallow at its southern extremity. Its shores are 
low and marshy at the entrance of Eed Eiver, and subject to inun- 
dations! By the report of Captain Munn, at low water, the depth 
on the bar at the entrance of that river, in the shallowest part of 
the channel is only four feet. The narrows and islands in the 
south half of the lake afford good protection in the navigation of 
it from Big Island, as far as the mouth of the Little Saskatchewan ; 
in the expansion below Big Island the soundings are from three 
to five fathoms with good anchorage. From opposite the mouth of 
the Little Saskatchewan, he says, a vessel would have to depend 
on steam and an anchor, in the event of a storm, as far as the 
mouth of the Great Saskatchewan, where there is an excellent 
harbour and good anchorage. 

The navigation of Lake Winnipeg derives an additional impor- 
tance from that of its tributaries, the Great and the Little Saskat- 
chewan ; the former being navigable for steamers, with but three 
interruptions to Edmonton, on the North Branch, seven hundred 
and seventy-two miles, and probably farther, to the base of the 
Eocky Mountains ; while the little Saskatchewan and its lakes 
present a navigation of upwards of three hundred miles from its 
mouth, or five hundred from Fort Garry, without interruption. 

THE RIVER WINNIPEG. 

The Eiver Winnipeg enters Lake Winnipeg, in a bay on the east 
side, at forty-one miles by the shore, from' the mouth of Eed Eiver, 
the southern extremity of the lake ; it has a course of about five 




1 



hundred miles, measuring from the head of the Savanne Eiver, at 
the height of land, on the canoe route from Fort William to Eed 
Eiver. 

Having large tributaries, and its sources being in a rainy 
region, it is a very large river ; — it is considered by Mr. Dawson 
and Mr. Hind, of the Canadian Exploring Expedition, as resem- 
bling the Upper Ottawa in volume, say equal to the Ehine. 

On its lower course the Ottawa, by the report of the Canal 
Survey, was found to have a mean discharge of 85,000 cubic feet 
per second, while the Ehine, as quoted, in the same report, from 
D'Aubuisson, has a mean discharge of 33,700 cubic feet per 
second. 

The upper waters of the Winnipeg, Lac des Mille Lacs, the 
Eiver Seine, Eainy Lake and Eainy Eiver, with the Lake of the 
Woods, into which they flow, form the chief part of the proposed 
line of communication from Lake Superior to Eed Eiver. 

The Lake of the Woods, seventy miles in length, and the Eiver 
Winnipeg below it, a hundred and sixty-three miles long, by its 
crooked, turbulent and obstructed course, to Lake Winnipeg, form 
together part of the assumed easterly boundary of the great central 
section of territory under consideration. 

The strip of rich alluvial land, eighty miles in length, on 
Eainy Eiver, and its favorable climate, and the importance of 
the Pine forest on the upper waters of the Winnipeg, for the 
supply of the prairie lands adjoining, have already been men- 
tioned. 

From the Lake of the Woods to its mouth, the Eiver Winnipeg, 
as described by our Canadian explorers, flows through the disk 
of the Laurentian formation : both banks are generally rocky and 
sterile. Between Islington Mission (thirty-five miles below the 
Lake of the Woods, where it begins) and Silver Falls, good soil 
occurs in the form of drift clay, in small patches of from fifty to 
three hundred acres. From Silver Falls, eighteen miles from 
Lake Winnipeg, well-wooded, fertile alluvial land prevails, on both 
banks, down to Lake Winnipeg ; forming on the south side the 
large fertile tract in which Fort Alexander is situated. 

The Laurentian country, on the Eiver Winnipeg, rises in dome- 
shaped hills, from a hundred to two hundred feet in height, that 
sink, irregularly, to the southward, into the plain country, which 
extends from the Lake of the Woods to Eed Eiver, a distance of 
about ninety miles. 

COUNTRY BETWEEN THE LAKE OF THE WOODS AND RED RIVER. 

This plain country is at first very level, and then falls gradually 
to the Eed Eiver. It is, more or less, thinly wooded, where not 



40 

covered with water, for sixty miles westward from the Lake of 
the Woods. In this distance swamps and " muskeags," vast lake- 
like marshes, prevail. Some of the latter are many miles in 
extent; they cover the greater part of the country. They are 
undrained prairies, covered with two or three feet of water, 
thickly charged with vegetable matter, over a firm marly or clay 
bottom. 

(This shallowness with firmness of bottom is singularly uniform; 
it was found so by Mr. Dawson's assistants in dragging their canoe 
through the muskeag, between the Lake of the Woods and White 
Mouth Eiver ; and it is the same forty miles further south in the 
muskeag between the Lake of the Woods and the Eiver Eoseau.) 

As they are so shallow, and the fall from the Lake of the 
Woods to Eed Eiver is three hundred and sixty feet, they could, 
no doubt, to a great extent be drained, and would form vast fertile 
fields or valuable meadows ; like the salt marshes on the Bay of 
Fundy, which have been reclaimed with great labor, in the con- 
struction of extensive dikes to exclude the tide. As the summer 
is equal to that of the district of Montreal, the marshes of the 
Lake of the Woods may yet be found as well worth reclaiming 
as the Westmoreland marshes referred to. Where there is much 
superfluous vegetable matter — or even three feet in depth of it, as 
it is stated there is in the swamps — it might be compressed for 
fuel. 

The manufacture of Canadian peat is already yielding cheap 
fuel in Montreal, where it can be delivered at $3.20 per ton. It 
would be satisfactory if the bogs and swamps near the Eed Eiver 
settlements were found to contain sufficient material to supply the 
future demand for fuel there when the woods, which have hitherto 
met their requirements, fail. With a canal or a railroad passing 
through this, tract, as part of the proposed route to Eed Eiver, such 
a supply would be made easily available, even from the great peaty 
morass behind the fertile strip on Eainy Eiver. 

A range, of slightly elevated ridges, which traverses this marshy 
country, commencing near the north-west end of the Lake of the 
Woods, was found to afford a good site for a road through to Fort 
Garry. From its being extremely even and free from obstacles, 
it is a most favorable site for a railroad. Immediately north of it 
there seems to be a favorable site for a canal; to both of which 
we shall have occasion to refer. 

RED RIVER. 

At its south end Lake Winnipeg receives the Eed Eiver — 
exceeding the Winnipeg in length of course, but far inferior to it 







ill magnitude; yet a fine river, resembling the Eichelieu in 
volume. By its windings it is nearly six hundred miles in length. 

For the last three hundred miles of its course its general direc- 
tion is due north. It crosses the United States boundary about 
ninety miles west of the Lake of the Woods, a little over a 
hundred miles from its mouth ; and for that distance flows through 
this territory in a nearly level prairie plain of the richest alluvial 
soil. 

Captain Palliser describes the soil as being that of an ancient 
Lake bottom, consisting of variously proportioned mixtures of 
clay, loam and marl, with a remarkable deficiency of sand, over- 
laid with a great depth of vegetable mould, varying from two to 
five feet in thickness. Mr. Dawson and Mr. Hind speak of it as 
being generally from ten to twenty inches of black mould on a 
thick bed of alluvial clay. 

This description of prairie country is described as extending 
back, on the east side of Eed Eiver, from four to about thirty miles ; 
and on the west side about forty, to the ridge or hilly ground called 
the Pembina Mountains, the high disk of the unfertile dry prairie 
lands south of the Assiniboine. Parts of it are marshy, as might 
be expected of an alluvial nearly level plain, in a state of nature ; 
but they are described as admitting of being drained with little 
trouble. The big swamp in rear of the Eed Eiver settlement is 
twenty-seven feet above the surface of the river ; and the nine 
mile swamp on Eat Eiver, a small tributary on the east side 
above the settlement, is described as capable of being drained with 
comparatively trifling labour, and would form the richest of prairie 
land. Marshes, great and small, and swampy spots requiring im- 
provement — and capable of it, though of the richest soil — encroach 
largely on the area immediately available for cultivation ; which 
is naturally less in proportion than in some of the higher prairie 
grounds of rich sandy loam. 

Prom its lowness — (to which it owes its extraordinary fertility,) 
like many other alluvial valleys — parts of it are sometimes subject 
to inundations, but very rarely. About forty miles from its mouth 
the Eed Eiver receives its chief tributary, the Assiniboine. At 
their confluence is situated Upper Port Garry, the chief commer- 
cial emporium and seat of government of the Eed Eiver settle- 
ment, (which extends from twenty miles above to thirty miles 
below it on the Eed Eiver, and about seventy miles up the Assi- 
niboine.) 

Eed Eiver is 480 feet wide and twelve feet deep at the middle 
settlement. It is navigable to the United States boundary and 
far to the south of it by boats of light draft ; but the navigation 
of it is subject to interruption by drought in the dry season of the, 
vear. 



42 

From the settlement up to the United States boundary, about 
fifty-seven miles, its banks are fringed with wood, from a few yards 
to half a mile in breadth, and the peninsulas it forms are well 
wooded. The woods of elm, poplar, oak and ash towards its 
mouth, have supplied the wants of the settlement for upwards of 
twenty years. 

The alluvial clay of the Eed Eiver and the Assiniboine is reported 
to be well fitted for the manufacture of bricks and common pottery, 
in patches ; which may be of importance for building in parts 
where stone cannot be had near. The prevalence of limestone, 
however, will leave little occasion for the use of brick. 



CHAPTER IX. 



THE EIVER ASSINIBOINE. 



By its very winding course the river Assiniboine is over six 
hundred miles in length. For two hundred and twenty miles, 
in direct distance upwards from its mouth, its course is nearly 
west ; above that, its course, for upwards of two hundred miles in 
direct distance, is north-westerly, lying nearly parallel to Lake 
Winnipeg, at a mean distance of two hundred and forty miles west 
of it. 

At two hundred and twenty miles west from its mouth, where 
it turns northward, it receives its tributary, the river Qu'Appelle, 
which continues directly westward two hundred and fifty miles 
further, having its source near the elbow of the South Branch of 
the Saskatchewan, four hundred and seventy miles directly west- 
ward from the mouth of the Assiniboine. 

Though it and its tributaries drain a larger area than Red 
River, the Assiniboine, owing to the dryness of the country south- 
west of it, drained by its principal feeders, and the loss of water 
in its lower course, is scarcely equal to the one-third of Red River 
at their junction. By Professor Hind's measurements the volume 
of the Assiniboine, at a hundred and forty miles from its mouth, 
where it is two hundred and thirty feet wide and eight feet in mean 
depth, diminishes to half before its junction with the Red River. 
The difference is seemingly lost in the sandy tract, of about fifty 
miles in breadth, which it enters about a hundred and twenty 
miles west of Fort Garry, a little above the mouth of its tributary, 
the Souris or Mouse River. 

The Souris is apparently upwards of three hundred miles in 
length. Its source is a little north of the U. S. boundary, and 







three hundred and fifty miles west of Eed River. A great bend of 
it at its middle course crosses that boundary. 

By Mr. Hind's measurement the volume of water discharged by 
the Souris, though much broader at its mouth, seems to be about 
half of that of the Qu'Appelle. The latter near its mouth is sixty- 
six feet wide, flowing a mile and a half an hour, with a mean depth 
of six and a half feet. 

The small discharge of water by these rivers, compared with 
their length of course and the extent of their tributaries, indicates 
the generally arid nature of the light prairie country drained by 
them ; the greater volume of the Qu'Appelle being apparently due 
to the generally better description of country on its north bank. 
The main Assiniboine, above the Qu'Appelle, discharges twice as 
much water as the latter river, the area drained by it, though 
only half as extensive as that of the Qu'Appelle, being a very fer- 
tile country. 

THE INFERTILE LANDS ON THE SOURIS AND QU'APPELLE. 

Much the greater part of the country drained by the Eiver 
Qu'Appelle, and very nearly all that drained by the Eiver Souris, 
is classed as light prairie land on Professor Hind's shaded maps, 
distinguishing the quality of the land, published with his report in 
Parliamentary Papers on the Colonies of 1860. In the body of 
his report, however, he estimates nearly a million of acres as fertile 
arable land; that is, only one-fortieth part of its area. 

This region lies south of the great belt of fertile country de- 
scribed by Capt. Palliser as suitable for cultivation. 

Much of its surface, especially south of an imaginary line from 
the great bend of the Souris across the middle course of the Qu'- 
Appelle, is described as bare and treeless prairie, covered only with 
short grass, and very deficient of water ; and in parts the soil is 
so light and sandy that it drifts with the wind, and in others the 
ground is strewed with fragments of shale and granite boulders. 

A great obstacle to settlement in these treeless plains is the 
want of wood for fuel. Were they otherwise suitable, that might 
probably be, in parts, overcome. Dr. Hector's admirable geological 
section from Lake Winnipeg to Vancouver's Island shows brown 
coal in the Coteau du Prairie which extends from above the Elbow 
of the South Branch of the Saskatchewan, along the sources' of the 
Qu'Appelle and the Souris, to the boundary line, with a height of 
six hundred feet above the plain. Above the Blue Hills up the 
Souris, a little more than twenty miles from its mouth, Mr. Hind 
found beds of lignite boulders in its banks ; the water-borne debris 
of beds of lignite coal. 



As so much has been seen in the course of the limited explora- 
tions yet made, more may probably be discovered on further exam- 
ination of the country. 

This region, described as generally infertile, lying on the waters 
of the Souris and the Qu'Appelle, and southward to the U. S. 
boundary, is equal to England in area ; and continues westward, to 
a still greater extent. 

But it is proper to notice that there are apparently considerable 
exceptions to this generally valueless character. Mr. Hind speaks 
of the bend of the Souris, near the Blue Hills, being " in the midst 
of a very lovely undulating country." A little further on he speaks 
of a vast prairie of a rich dark green, " a beautiful level waste/' 
afterwards of " an extensive deposit of bog iron ore capped with 
shell marl." Speaking of the Souris, further up, he says that its 
valley, " along which we travelled to-day, varies from a quarter to 
a mile broad. It flows through a rich open meadow 20 to 25 feet 
below the general level of the prairie, which on either hand is un- 
dulating, light, and covered with short stunted grass." He speaks 
of the valley of the Pipestone creek as being " narrow, but rich 
and beautiful." 

In the same manner, beyond the region designated as the great 
fertile belt, ascending the south bank of the Qu'Appelle from its 
mouth, he says " we left Fort Ellice and travelled due west 
through a pretty country, and the following day arrived at the cross 
woods. They consist of aspen with a splendid undergrowth. The 
pasturage is excellent and the road good, passing through a fair 
rolling country, the soil consisting of a sandy loam with much 
vegetable matter in the valleys. Aspen groves are numerous, and 
many little lakes." Again, " The trail continued through good 
land for nine miles, with aspen groves on the crown of each undu- 
lation." " Then came a prairie, three miles across." " Ponds were 
numerous, abounding with ducks and ducklings." Speaking of the 
Indian Head Hills, near the middle course of the Qu'Appelle, he 
calls them " a hilly country for some miles : it contains many beau- 
tiful lakes and is well wooded." Further on he .speaks of an 
" exceedingly beautiful view, embracing an extensive area of level 
prairie to the north, bounded by the Aspen Woods on the borders 
of the Qu'Appelle Valley. A portion of the old forest still exists, 
of a large growth and very thickly set." Continuing, he says, 
" on the 17th we entered a very beautiful fertile prairie at the foot 
of the Indian Head range ;" and further, " we reached the Qu'Ap- 
pelle Lakes after passing through a magnificent prairie the whole 
day. In fact, the country north of the Indian Head and Chalk 
Hill ranges is truly beautiful, and will one day become a very 
important tract." 







Speaking of the Qu'Appelle Mission, lie says : " the situation is 
beautiful. Here the Qu'Appelle Valley is one mile and a quarter 
broad and 250 feet deep. Both north and south a vast prairie 
extends, fertile, inviting, but treeless on the south, and dotted 
with groves of aspen over a light and somewhat gravelly soil on 
the north. Most beautiful and attractive, however, are the lakes, 
four in number, and from the rich store of fish they contain, are 
well-named Fishing Lakes. A belt of timber fringes their sides 
at the foot of the steep hills they wash, for they fill the entire 
breadth of the valley. Ancient elm trees, with long and drooping 
branches, bend over the water, the ash-leaved maple acquires 
dimensions not seen since leaving Eed Eiver, and the Mi-sas-ka- 
to-mi-na is no longer a bush, but a tree eighteen to twenty feet 
high, and loaded with most luscious fruit." 

All this, and no doubt much more like it, is excluded from the 
belt generally spoken of as suitable for settlement; but though 
certainly inferior to the rich alluvial plains on the Eed Eiver, 
such lands are evidently better suited for cultivation than much of 
the poor and scarcely arable lands we have been eadeavoring to 
bring under settlement in the Ottawa and Huron territory. In- 
fertile prairie lands, even of the worst description, are easily 
travelled over. They present no obstruction to communication, 
such as our rugged woodlands do. The hunting bands drive 
their carts all over them on natural roads, as good as our coloni- 
zation roads, which, imperfect as they are, cost a hundred pounds 
a mile, and upwards. 

Even the poor prairies, if they be little worth, at least cost 
nothing for clearing ; and as their surface shows that they afford 
pasturage for numerous herds of buffaloes, it is evident they may 
do the same for domestic cattle and sheep. 

When we read such descriptions, and turn to Mr. Hind's 
large map of exploration that accompanies his report, as published 
by the Canadian Government, and see large tracts, watered by fine 
streams, designated as " rolling prairie, good clay soil ;" " level 
plain, dark rich loam;" "open level prairie of light sandy loam, 
with clumps of willows ;" "rolling prairie of light clay loam, 
marshy in many places," (thirty miles of this in one tract ap- 
parently) ; " rich black soil ;" " rolling prairie of sandy clay ;" 
" level open prairie, full of marshy ponds ;" and in the first great 
bend of the Souris, a tract of twenty miles, by ten apparently, with 
several streams issuing from it of " slightly undulating prairie of 
rich sandy loam, with clumps of young poplar;" and when we 
consider that these tracts, with the exception of marshy spots in 
them, are generally ready to receive the plough, without the trouble 
-and cost we have in Canada in clearing and in taking out stumps 



46 

and stones, we are led to believe, that if these expressions have 
been used with accuracy, which there is no room to doubt, consi- 
derable tracts of this region, not included in the fertile belt, com- 
monly spoken of, are really far from being quite unfit for settle- 
ment. 

These particulars are noticed here because, from the circum- 
stances of the large region in which they occur, being naturally in 
generalizing excluded from the fertile country/the value of much 
of it might be underrated. 

They tend to show that the estimates referred to do not exag- 
gerate the extent of fertile lands, and are not the less valuable on 
that account. 

These remarks will be applicable to the large proportion of the 
prairie lands on the south branch of the Saskatchewan, adjoining 
to the westward, which has also been classed as valueless and unfit 
for settlement. 

"With the vast extent of far superior land which this territory 
offers, even the exceptional good tracts, such as those described, 
which are to be found in the infertile regions, may well be disre- 
garded for the present. 



CHAPTER X. 

FERTILE LAND ON THE ASSINIBOINE. 

Ascending the Assiniboine from its mouth for upwards of 
seventy miles to the Sand Hills, the country through which it 
flows is described as being of the same rich alluvial character as 
on the Eed Eiver ; with the advantage of never being subject to 
inundation. Beyond that is the sandy tract, fifty miles in length 
westward ; south of the river it connects with the dry prairie lands 
already mentioned; on the north side it extends twenty miles back 
from the river, to the great fertile region north of it. Then, for 
about a hundred miles further west, to where it turns northward at 
the mouth of the QuAppelle, and for nearly fifty miles north of 
that, the Assiniboine may be considered as the boundary between 
the great fertile prairie region and the equally great region of light 
prairie land south and west of it. 

Between the Sand Hills and the QuAppelle the Assiniboine 
receives, on the north side, five considerable tributaries, from fifty 
to a hundred and fifty miles in length. Their courses are in the 
fertile region. The land on their head waters is described as good 
sandy loam. The description of one of them, the Eapid River, in- 







dicates their general character. Of it Mr. Dickinson of the Cana- 
dian exploring party says : " The valley is about eighty feet below 
the general level of the country ; the bottom of it is from half a 
mile to a mile in width, through which the river winds its way, 
flowing rapidly and uniformly ; it is about fifty feet wide, and at 
this time (August) five feet deep. There is no appearance of the 
valley being flooded. There are large open flats occurring fre- 
quently, on both sides of the river, where the richness of the grass 
and the beauty of the various flowers prove the great fertility of 
the soil, places marked out by nature to be cultivated and inhabited 
by man. There is abundance of good sized poplar and balsam, 
spruce sufficiently large for building and farming purposes. I 
followed the course of the valley down to its junction with the 
valley of the Assiniboine, (a hundred miles,) and for the greater 
part of the way it is rich and fertile, as is also the land adjoining. 
Within a few miles of the Assiniboine the country changes con- 
siderably, the soil is much lighter, and the trees fewer and smaller." 
A strip of sandy ground extends for eighty miles above the Eapid 
Eiver along the north bank of the Assiniboine. 

Eapid Eiver is navigable for a hundred miles for canoes a^id 
bateaux. 

Speaking of the northerly part of the Assiniboine above the 
Qu'Appelle, S. J. Dawson, Esquire, who was in charge of the 
Exploratory Expedition of 1858, after describing the river as 
crooked and rapid for eighteen miles below Fort Pelly, says : " it is 
then joined by the White Mud Eiver from the west, which 
drains a considerable portion of the great alluvial prairies which 
travellers pass on their way to Carleton House, and which have 
excited such general admiration on account of their great fertility." 
He describes the river as winding in a deep valley, from a mile to 
two miles in width, for a hundred miles, from White Mud Eiver to 
Fort Ellice ; the banks increasing in height from a moderate eleva- 
tion at the former to two hundred and fifty feet at the latter place. 
He says : "With regard to the quality of the soil ; on going inland 
a little we found it to be of an alluvial character, differing in no 
respect from the soil in the prairie lands at Eed Eiver." He speaks 
of its tributary brooks as flowing in " glens stretching far inland ; 
with winding banks, covered in some cases with green herbage and 
in others with forests that ascend to the level of the plain above." 
He describes the course of the Assiniboine as being remarkably 
crooked, occasionally crossing its valley as much as three times in 
the direct distance of a mile, — (very unfavorable for navigation 
were it otherwise suitable.) He says : " The margin of the stream 
is in general wooded ; sometimes the woods extend across the 
whole valley ; in other cases the green banks slope down from the 
prairie level to the water's edge." 



Such is the character of the northerly part or upper half of the 
Assiniboine and its valley. North-eastward of it the prairie 
plateau extends to the base of the Eiding, Duck and Porcupine 
Mountains, a distance varying from sixty to thirty miles. It is 
described as a fertile country, often exceedingly beautiful, inter- 
spersed with forests and clumps of wood, generally of young trees 
and of a small growth ; marshy in spots and abounding in lakelets 
or ponds, with wild fowl exceedingly abundant. Its soil is a rich 
sandy loam ; limestone boulders and gravelly spots occurring but 
rarely. 

Westward of the Assiniboine, above the light prairie tract 
already mentioned, this same description of fertile country, inter- 
spersed with woods, and abundantly watered by ponds and streams, 
extends a hundred and thirty miles to and beyond the base of the 
great and the little Touchwood Hills. 

These ranges of hills extend in a south-west direction, about 
twenty miles from each other. The greater is about eighty miles, 
and the lesser about sixty miles in length. They lie between the 
upper courses of the Assiniboine and the Qu'Appelle. The trans- 
verse breadth of country occupied by them, and their gently 
ascending bases, measuring north-westward, is about fifty miles. 

Speaking of them, Professor Hind says : " We reached the 
summit plateau, and then passed through a very beautiful undu- 
lating country, diversified by many picturesque lakes and aspen 
groves, possessing land of the best quality, and covered with most 
luxuriant herbage ;" further he says : " The country between the 
two ranges is dotted with lakes and groves of aspen. From a 
small hill near the Fort, I counted forty-seven lakes ;' ; and further, 
" So rich and abundant is the vegetation here, that the horses 
remain in the open glades all the winter, and always find plenty of 
forage to keep them in good condition. Buffaloes congregate in the 
beautiful prairie south of the Fort every winter, sometimes in vast 
numbers." A little further he says : " Not only are lakes very 
abundant and well supplied with water, but there are several living 
streams flowing from the range. Indeed, the whole countiy from 
Touchwood Hills to Eiding Mountain," (upwards of two hundred 
miles,) " including the country about the head waters of the Assi- 
niboine, is dotted with innumerable lakes annually replenished by 
summer rains." 

North of the Touchwood Hills, the fertile prairie plateau, with 
an increasing proportion of woods in its northern and eastern parts, 
extends from the Duck Mountains, westward to the South Branch 
of the Saskatchewan, two hundred and twenty miles, and beyond 
it, up the valley of the North Branch, four hundred miles further. 
In a northerly direction it extends to the main Saskatchewan below 










49 

the junction of the two branches, upwards of a hundred miles 
north of Fort Pelly, on the Assiniboine, and to the wooded country 
on Eoot Eiver, which projects from the north-east into the prairie 
country. 

Fertile ground continues through the wooded country for some 
distance north of Eoot Eiver, till it merges in the poor marshy 
grounds towards the main Saskatchewan. 



CHAPTER XL 

LAKES MANITOBAH AND WINNIPEGOOS. 

A little east of the middle of the tract of two hundred and forty 
miles in width, between Lake Winnipeg and the Assiniboine, and 
roughly parallel to them, extend Lake Winnipegoos in the north 
and Lake Manitobah in the south ; the latter receives the waters 
of the former by an elbow-shaped stream, and discharges its own 
into Lake Winnipeg, from a bay on its east side, by a river called 
the Little Saskatchewan, which is fifty miles in direct length to 
its mouth. 

These lakes are each a hundred and twenty miles in length. 
The greatest breadth of Manitobah is twenty-four miles, and of 
Winnipegoos twenty-seven. Taken together, they extend two 
hundred and twenty miles from north to south. 

They enclose between them and Lake Winnipeg a peninsula 
of two hundred and fifty miles in length by a hundred miles in 
greatest breadth, which is cut across at the middle by the Little 
Saskatchewan. 

This peninsula, though as large as the Kingdom of Denmark, 
counts for little in the Nor'-West. Its interior has not been 
examined by our explorers. It is reported to be a low flat country, 
abounding in lakes and marshes. On its coast, on the north-east 
shore of Lake Manitobah, Mr. Dawson states that from the marsh 
which lies behind its high shingle beach, a rich alluvial soil rises 
gradually to a moderate height, not subject to be flooded. The 
section it shows, where traversed by the Little Saskatchewan, is 
less favorable, having much very low ground ; which is natural, 
as the river would seek its way over the lowest part. As it is a 
limestone country and thickly wooded, the soil must necessarily 
be very fertile, where there is depth enough of it; which should 
at least frequently be the case in a low level country. 

We may expect that it will be found so when explored; but it 
is of little present importance. 
4 



Bound the south end of Lake Manitobah, for a circuit of about 
fifty miles, the soil is that of the richest description of prairie 
land. The few settlers consider it even superior to that of Red 
River. It is an undulating country of mingled woods and open 
prairie. 

The White Mud River, a stream of about eighty miles in length 
by its course, which has its sources in the southern skirts of the 
Riding Mountains, and flows eastward to the south end of Lake 
Manitobah, is described as passing through an exceedingly beauti- 
ful and fertile country of prairies, thickly interspersed with woods, 
the soil of which is a rich sandy loam. This very rich prairie land 
extends southward to the Sand Hills on the Assiniboine, and east- 
ward to Red River. 

Between the upper end of Lake Manitobah and the Riding 
Mountains, and around Lake Dauphin, there is much rich ground, 
and much of it very marshy. Mr. Dawson and Mr. Hind agree in 
thinking that these marshes could generally be drained, and would 
form rich meadows. But Mr. Hind does not consider the country 
on the shores of these lakes, and between them and the Riding and 
Duck Mountains, as generally suitable for settlement, excepting 
the south end of Lake Manitobah. Mr. Dawson's opinion is more 
favorable, owing probably to his greater experience of rugged 
countries like the Ottawa and eastern districts, where the standard 
by which land is estimated is not so high as in the western parts 
of Canada. 

Mr. Dawson states that " the country bordering on the western 
extremity of Lake Winnipegoos is, in general, of a fair elevation, and 
the land appears to be remarkably fertile ; between the Red Deer 
River and Swan River," (a distance of seventy-five miles), "a level 
country extends to the base of the Porcupine Hills. It is well 
wooded, and upon the whole, I consider this tract well adapted for 
settlement." 

THE DAUPHIN RIVER. 

Reporting on the River Dauphin, Mr. A. Wells says, " that is 
a fine stream, forty yards broad, having five feet of water in the 
shallowest parts. Its banks are of a strong gray clay, covered 
with black mould and timbered with oak, elm and poplar, and 
adds, " there are several places on the Dauphin River where the 
Indians grow potatoes, indian corn and melons." 

THE RED DEER RIVER. 

The Red Deer River, which falls into the north-west end of 
Lake Winnipegoos, is said to flow through" a country that is very 









51 

fertile. The fact that maple is to be found there in considerable 
quantities (as noticed by Sir Alexander McKenzie) is a favorable 
indication alike as to soil and climate. It is a stream of about two 
hundred miles in length by its course. 

THE SWAN RIVER. 

The Swan River, which enters a bay of the north end of Lake 
Winnipegoos, after passing northward through Swan Lake, is about 
two hundred miles in length by its course. Speaking of it Mr. 
Dawson says : " Ascending from Swan Lake for two miles or so, 
the banks are rather low, in the succeeding ten miles they gradually 
attain a height of nearly a hundred feet, landslips occur in many 
places, where the banks are high, exposing an alluvial soil of 
great depth resting on drift clay, or shale of a slightly bituminous 
appearance." 

" About thirty miles above Swan Lake, the prairie region fairly 
commences. There the river winds about in a fine valley, the banks 
of which rise to the height of eighty or a hundred feet. Beyond 
these an apparently unbroken level extends, on one side, for a 
distance of fifteen or twenty miles to the Porcupine Hills, and for 
an equal distance on the other, to the high table-land called the 
Duck Mountain. From this south-westward to Thunder Mountain, 
the country is the finest I have ever seen in a state of nature. 
The prospect is bounded by the blue outline of the hills named, 
while, in the plain, alternate wood and prairie present an appear- 
ance more pleasing than if either entirely prevailed." Leaving 
Swan River to cross Fort Pell^ he says, " the road then follows for 
some distance a tributary of Swan River, which runs in a beautiful 
valley with alternate slopes of woodland and prairie. Numbers of 
horses were quietly feeding on the rich pasture of the valley as we 
passed, and what with the clumps of trees on the rising grounds 
and the stream winding among green meadows, it seemed as if it 
wanted but the presence of human habitations to give it the ap- 
pearance of a highly cultivated country." 

This description carries us round again into the rich prairie 
country, already described, on the upper course of the Assiniboine, 
which as before observed is bounded on the east by the Porcupine, 
the Duck and the Riding Mountains. It is in a broad valley 
between the two latter that the Swan River finds its way eastward. 

THE PORCUPINE, DUCK AND BIDING MOUNTAINS. 

These mountains are thickly covered with wood of a large 
growth ; they rise gently, in successive plateaus, from the prairie 
plain, which is much higher than the low country on the shores of 
the lakes east of them. 







Taken together, they extend in a curved line of two hundred 
miles in length, nearly parallel to the Assiniboine, about half way 
between it and the Lakes Manitobah and Winnipegoos. 

Mr. Hind gives the Hiding Mountains an elevation of a thou- 
sand feet above the land on the shore of Lake Manitobah ; and Mr. 
Dawson estimates the Porcupine Mountains as rising to about 
fifteen hundred feet over the plain at their eastern base. 

The Biding and Duck Mountains are more properly described 
as portions of the elevated disk of the high plain country on the 
Upper Assiniboine, which rises gently from the prairie in succes- 
sive plateaus, thickly wooded, to the summit, falling eastward in 
abrupt descents to the much lower country along the west shores 
of Lakes Manitobah and Winnipegoos; presenting towards them 
a mountainous and lofty aspect. 

Eising from the prairie they are covered with a thick growth of 
wood, chiefly poplar. The table land of the summit of the Eiding 
Mountain is described by Professor Hind as fine land, heavy clay 
soil supporting a forest of very large white spruce, poplar, birch, 
aspen, &c. ; the white spruce girthing from five feet six inches to 
seven feet three inches. In Mr. Dawson's report, the table land 
forming the summit of Duck Mountain is described, from infor- 
mation obtained, to be of rich soil and heavily wooded. Porcupine 
Mountain, besides being higher, rises in a more definite form from 
the plains at its base. 

NAVIGATION OF LAKES MANITOBAH AND WINNIPEGOOS AND 
RIVER LITTLE SASKATCHEWAN. 

As the Little Saskatchewan, the outlet of Lake Manitobah, is a 
fine navigable stream of seven hundred and fifty feet in breadth, 
and the Waterhen Eiver or Sangisipi, which connects Lakes Mani- 
tobah and Winnipegoos, has a broad channel not less than three 
feet deep at low water, they present together with these lakes an 
unbroken line of water communication from Port Garry to Mossy 
Portage, at the head of Lake Winnipegoos, a distance of about five 
hundred miles. 

Mossy Portage, which is only about four miles and a quarter in 
length, through low ground, connects the head of Lake Winnipe- 
goos with Cedar Lake on the Eiver Saskatchewan, above its great 
rapids. A short canal there would unite the navigation by these 
lakes from Fort Garry with that of the Eiver Saskatchewan, (from 
Cedar Lake upwards) which for nearly a thousand miles presents no 
greater obstructions to navigation than are to be found in the Eiver 
Ohio. This would form a line of water communication of about 
fifteen hundred miles in length from Port Garry to the foot of the 
Eocky Mountains. By ascending the Assiniboine seventy miles to 







53 



Prairie Portage, and canalling by the Eat Eiver and White Mud 
Kiver, about twenty-five miles, to the south end of Lake Manitobah, 
the distance to the Saskatchewan would be shortened by a hundred 
miles. A cheaply constructed shallow canal, with a good length 
and breadth of lock-pit, would be sufficient there for large business. 
The character of the Saskatchewan, as a navigable river, will be 
further noticed. 



CHAPTER XII. 

THE RIVER SASKATCHEWAN AND ITS COUNTRY. 

The term country is more properly applicable than valley to the 
region drained by the Saskatchewan and its tributaries. The 
country through which the two great arms of the Saskatchewan 
have their courses, being a portion of the great interior plateau 
that slopes down eastward from the Eocky Mountains, it does not 
present the aspect of a valley. The term valley is more appropri- 
ately applicable to the deep hollows, in the generally plain country, 
in which its rivers flow. 

The north and south branches of the Saskatchewan, as before 
mentioned, have their sources in the Eocky Mountains but a few 
miles apart, about latitude 51° 40' N. ; that is, about a hundred and 
eighty-five miles north of the United States boundary. 

From their nearly common source the North Branch diverges 
north-eastward, and the South Branch or Bow Eiver south-eastward, 
till at two hundred and fifty miles due eastward they attain a 
distance of three hundred miles from each other ; the South Branch 
being there within forty-five miles of the frontier. Then gradually 
approaching, they meet at five hundred and fifty miles eastward 
from their source. 

The length of the North Branch, by the manuscript field notes 
of the survey of it by the North- West Company's astronomer, 
David Thompson, is seven hundred and seventy-two and a half 
miles, and that of the South or Main Branch, by the latest maps, 
is about eight hundred and ten miles. 

From their junction, the course of the Main Saskatchewan to 
Lake Winnipeg is, by Thompson's field notes, two hundred and 
eighty-two miles. This makes the whole length of the Saskatche- 
wan, from the source of the South Branch, (which is the main 
stream,) to Lake Winnipeg, a thousand and ninety-two miles. 
Following the North Branch, as measured by Thompson, the total 
length to Lake Winnipeg is a thousand and fifty-four and a half 
miles. 







This gives occasion to remark that the length of rivers, and dis- 
tances generally, are much exaggerated in new countries ; and even 
scientific men are led into error by hearing them so spoken of by 
the people of the country. In this manner Capt. Blackiston gives 
the distance from Lake Winnipeg to Edmonton, on the North 
Branch, as a thousand miles ; but by Thompson's field-book the 
measured distance is only seven hundred and seventy-two miles. 
Much of the extraordinary length and size attributed to rivers in 
the United States is due to this; and errors respecting them from 
this source have found their way into standard works, such as 
Johnson's Physical Atlas. 

Passing through the north end of Lake Winnipeg, at four hun- 
dred and twenty-three miles further, the Saskatchewan falls into 
Hudson's Bay, making its entire length from its source to the sea, 
fifteen hundred and fifteen miles. In this last distance its waters 
are more than doubled in volume from the large tributaries that 
feed Lake Winnipeg ; and as it descends six hundred and twenty- 
eight feet, its course is exceedingly obstructed by rapids and falls. 

The total area drained by it is five hundred thousand miles, or 
one-seventh more than the Ganges unwaters. 

By the careful measurements of Mr. Fleming, of the Canadian 
Exploring Expedition, the volume of water passing in the North 
Branch, in the month of August, was 25,264 cubic feet per second, 
or one-fifth more than the mean volume of the Ehone, by D'Aubuis- 
son; and that of the South Branch was 34,285, or 585 feet more 
than the mean of the Rhine, by the same authority. Measured 
below the forks, where it is 980 feet wide and 20 feet in average 
depth, that of the main Saskatchewan was 59,667 cubic feet per 
second, or nearly three-quarters of the mean discharge of the 
Ottawa at Grenville * 

The area drained by the South Saskatchewan is greater than 
that of the Rhine, and the water-shed of the Rocky Mountains 
drained by it is greater than that of the Alps drained by the Rhine, 
and the excess of its volume would be much greater were it not for 
the extent of dry prairie land it passes through. The River Mis- 
souri, which flows through the same description of country, is simi- 
larly affected. Though draining an equal area to that of the St. 
Lawrence, and nearly as long in direct distance from its source to 
its mouth, it throws into the Mississippi only about one-fourth of 
the water the St. Lawrence discharges into the Gulf ; and its general 
width is only five hundred yards. 

In considering the character of the Saskatchewan and its country, 

* "When it is considered that the Ottawa draws its waters from a cold, high and 
densely-wooded region with innumerable deep lakes, the cause of its great volume 
will be at once apparent. 









as described by the Canadian Exploring Party and others, let us 
ascend it from Lake Winnipeg. 

From its mouth there are over two miles of strong current up to 
the Grand Eapids, which are nearly three miles in length, with a 
descent of forty-three and a half feet. The river has there worn its 
channel, varying from six hundred and sixty to two hundred and 
twenty yards in width, clown through the lips of the horizontal beds 
of limestone, which form the basis of the level and generally marshy 
plateau behind. 

As to the country in the vicinity of the Grand Eapids, Professor 
Hind says it is " very favorable for a road, and even for a settle- 
ment, as the banks of the river are high, with a considerable depth 
of good soil, from the second rapid east of Cross Lake to near Lake 
Winnipeg," about eight miles, and adds, there is also abundance of 
timber for fuel and building. 

The second rapid referred to is at four miles above the head of 
the Grand Eapid. It is fully a mile long, with a fall of seven and a 
half feet. From tins up to Cedar Lake, which is twenty miles from 
Lake Winnipeg, there is a succession of rapids and swift currents, 
which, with the rapids already mentioned, make a total descent of 
upwards of sixty feet. 

Cedar Lake is thirty miles long, and twenty-five miles in great- 
est width. From the foot of it the river is navigable for steamers, 
without interruption, up a hundred and eighty miles to Tobern's 
Eapids. 

Xorth of Cedar Lake the country is described as low and flat 
for a long distance back; the main land and islands well wooded 
with balsam, spruce, birch, poplar, tamarack, cedar, and Banksean 
pine. Low beds of horizontal limestone appear in the islands, and 
" a considerable portion of the land is reported to be swampy and 
unavailable for agricultural purposes." 

From Cedar Lake up to Marshy Lake, about forty miles, the 
country on each side of the river is not more than eighteen inches 
over the water, which is skirted by a belt of willows, alders and 
long grass ; in the rear an extensive marsh, with occasional islands 
of small poplar and spruce. The floods cover these flats every 
spring, depositing a very rich mud, which is raising and extending 
them. Much land has been so formed within the memory of the 
natives. No high ground is to be seen on either side, and the 
Indians report that there is nothing but boggy swamps behind for 
many miles. Up to near the mouth of the Pasquia Eiver, which 
is about eighty-five miles in direct distance from Lake Winnipeg, 
the banks continue only from two to three feet above the river, with 
a nearly similar low marshy country behind. 

The Pas Mission is situated at the mouth of the Pasquia, a con- 
siderable tributary. The river banks are there ten or twelve feet 







high, the soil a dark mould over drift clay. Here the exploring 
party found farm houses and fields of grain. The hanks, however, 
continue low alluvial, with a rather low country behind. 

Around Cumberland House (about 116 miles further), the 
country is low and flat ; " the soil in some places is a stiff clay, but 
in general it consists of a gravelly loam a few feet in thickness, 
covering a bed of white limestone, supporting a light growth of pop- 
lar and birch," with occasional groves of spruce : much of it is sub- 
merged in spring floods ; many of the marshes could be drained and 
improved without much difficulty. 

Here we have reached a very favorable country for agriculture. 
Speaking of the twenty-nine miles above this, Mr. Fleming says : — 
" The general character of the country we have passed through to- 
day is excellent, the soil being rich, and the timber of a fair quality." 
Of the forty-seven miles succeeding, upwards, he says he "passed 
through an excellent tract of country all day, the soil on both sides 
of the river consisting of a very rich alluvial deposit, ten feet in 
thickness above the water, well wooded with large poplar, balsam, 
spruce and birch ; some of the poplars measuring two and a half 
feet in diameter ; and, as far as I was enabled to ascertain, the 
land continues good for a great distance on either side, but more 
especially on the south side of the river." 

Of the fifty-three miles next above that he says that it is " well 
adapted for agricultural purposes and settlement, the soil being a 
rich alluvial loain. of considerable depth, well watered and drained 
by many fine creeks, and clothed with abundance of timber for fuel, 
fencing and building." 

The country on the banks of the river continues the same for a 
few miles further, till, approaching Fort a la Corne, the immediate 
banks become gradually higher, and the bluffs that form the edge 
of the high plateau behind on each side gradually approach nearer 
to the river. 

From Fort a la Corne, which is a hundred and fifty miles above 
Cumberland House, up to the forks of the north and south branches, 
a distance of sixteen miles, the river is described as sweeping, in 
magnificent curves, in a valley of about a mile in width, and from 
a hundred and fifty to two hundred feet lower than the general 
level of the country on each side. 

Describing the country on the south side of the Saskatchewan, 
here, Professor hind says : " The trail from Fort a la Corne to the 
old track leading from Fort Ellice to Carleton House ascends the 
hills, forming the banks of the deep eroded valley of the Saskat- 
chewan, in rear of the Fort. It passes through a thick forest of 
small aspens, until near the summit, when a sandy soil begins, 
covered with Banksean pine and a few small oak. The sandy soil 






57 

occupies a narrow strip on the banks of the river varying from half 
a mile to four miles broad. South of the sandy strip the soil 
changes to a rich black mould, distributed over a gently undulating 
country. The pine gives way to aspen and willows, in groves, the 
aspen occupying the crest of the undulations, and the willows the 
lowest portion of the intervening valleys. On the slopes the grass 
is long and luxuriant, affording fine pasturage. The general aspect 
of the country is highly favorable for agriculture, the soil deep and 
uniformly rich, rivalling the low prairies of Eed Eiver and the 
Assiniboine." 

Beyond this he speaks of the wooded country that extends 
southwards to the head of the Assiniboine, which is gradually being 
converted into open prairie, by the great fires that have done so 
already over great extents. He explains that by the term wooded 
country is to be understood a region in which prairie or grassy 
areas predominate over the aspen woods. 

This favorable country of mixed woodland and prairie, extends 
southward from the forks of the Saskatchewan, eighty miles, to the 
treeless prairie region on the northerly waters of the Eiver Qu'Ap- 
pelle. South-easterly it extends, including the wooded region on 
Eoot Eiver, through to the fertile country on the Assiniboine already 
described ; making together in that direction a breadth of three 
hundred and twenty miles of fertile country, interspersed with 
woodlands, between the forks of the Saskatchewan and the Assini- 
boine opposite the mouth of the Souris. 

EOOT OR CARROT RIVER 

Eises in rich lands on the south flank of the Lumpy Hill of the 
woods, sixty miles south-west from the forks of the Saskatchewan, 
and thirteen miles from the South Branch, and flows chiefly through 
what is described as wooded country with many lakes, generally 
from thirty to forty-five miles south of the Saskatchewan, into 
which it falls after a course of about two hundred and forty miles. 
Professor Hind estimates that there are three millions of acres of 
land of the first quality between it and the Saskatchewan. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

THE SOUTH BRANCH OF THE SASKATCHEWAN. 

Immediately above the Porks the South Branch of the Saskat- 
chewan is only a hundred and eighty yards in width, but. the 
current is swift, 3 \ miles an hour, and the average depth seven and 







a half feet. Professor Hind states it as being less in volume, and 
not half the width that it is two hundred and twenty miles fur- 
ther up. 

For about a hundred and thirty miles up its course, or a hundred 
miles in direct distance, its valley preserves the same character as 
that of the main river between the Forks and Fort a la Corne, but 
the banks, which the prairie plateaus on each side present to the 
narrow valley of the river, are generally lower, varying from a 
hundred, to forty feet in height, exposing sand-stone cliffs where cut 
by the bends of the river. The country on each side is described 
as having a rich soil, with abundant woods, in clumps and groves, 
for a great part of the way. It then becomes gradually less wooded 
and more sandy in parts, especially on the west side, till, after pass- 
ing the distance last mentioned, it assumes the character of light 
treeless prairie land. 

The river in this distance varies from 180 to 440 yards in 
breadth, increasing in width in ascending, generally from 10 to 14 
feet in depth, the current three and three and a half miles an hour, 
with a swifter current and whirpools in a few places. 

The generally treeless prairie country, reached at a hundred and 
thirty miles from the Forks, is the commencement of the great 
infertile region which has been already described as covering the 
greater part of the Eiver Qu'Appelle and its tributaries, and which, 
with some considerable exception, is described by Dr. Hector and 
Capt. Palliser, as extending westward over the South Saskatchewan 
and its tributaries, nearly to the hilly country at the base of the 
Eocky Mountains. 

Continuing about seventy miles further in the same south-south- 
west direction, or nearly a hundred miles by its course, the Elbow 
of the South Branch is reached at two hundred and ten, or what is 
usually called two hundred and fifty miles from the Forks. In the 
commencement of this distance is the " Moose Woods," a rich 
alluvial expansion of the low valley of the river, partly wooded, 
with rich glades between : it is twenty-five miles in length, and six 
or eight miles in breadth, and bounded on each side by sandy 
crested bluffs. From this to the Elbow the river aojain assumes its 
narrow valley, the banks of which gradually ascend to two hundred 
feet in height. 

About thirty-five miles above the Elbow the South Branch 
approaches the Eyebrow and Thunder-breeding Mountains, and 
there skirts the salient angle of the Coteau de Missouri, which 
springs like a vast bastion from the United States boundary ; its 
east face, which rises six hundred feet above the elevated plain 
at its foot, is two hundred miles in lengthj and its western face, 
called the Cypree Hills,, extends a hundred and sixty miles with 



59 

much greater elevation, being, according to Dr. Hector, four thou- 
sand two hundred feet above the sea, and sixteen hundred above 
the plains, according to Capt. Palliser. 

For nearly five hundred miles above the Elbow of the South 
Saskatchewan, its upward course passes through the great infertile 
region of light prairie land, the greater part of which is described 
as consisting of arid wastes ; from which, however, there are 
apparently some large exceptions, for instance, the Cypree Hills, 
just mentioned, are stated by Capt. Palliser to be " covered in fine 
timber, abounding in excellent grass, and well watered, and fairly, 
though not abundantly stocked with game." 

The following further extracts from Capt. Palliser's report, 
together with the above, give a very clear general view of the 
character of the country on the South Saskatchewan and its chief 
tributary, the Bed Deer Eiver. He says, " the Wachee or Hand 
Hills, in Lat. 51° 32' N. Long. 111° 20', are a plateau elevated 
about 450 feet above the level of the surrounding prairies. The 
grass and land were very good, but the timber not of any value, 
being chiefly willow and poplar. With the exception of very few 
similar spots, the whole prairie over which we passed, to our cross- 
ing place on the Eed Deer river, (about forty miles above the forks 
of Eed Deer and Bow rivers,) is a sandy country, the grass very 
scanty, and no wood" 

He proceeds to say, " we crossed Eed Deer river, and followed 
along its south bank, until we arrived opposite the site where the 
old Fort called Chesterfield House once stood ; with the exception 
of the bed of Eed Deer Eiver, the whole of that region is valueless, 
the grass being very scanty and timber very scarce." He does not 
say how wide the bed or valley of Eed Deer Eiver is. 

He says further, " there is throughout the whole of this region 
a great scarcity of rain ; but in a few places here and there, where 
the land rises above the plain to the height of three or four hundred 
feet, good grass and some timber, as rough bark poplar and willow, 
appear." 

Speaking of the South Branch of the Saskatchewan, he says : 
u having now examined all that river, we find the whole region from 
the Elbow, in longitude 107° 37 W., up to the point where the meri- 
dian 112 Q W. strikes the "line of the woods," by no means a desir- 
able district for settlement." 

Eed Deer Eiver enters the South Branch about a hundred and 
thirty miles above the Elbow. It is nearly five hundred miles in 
length, and is two hundred and fifty yards wide fifty miles above 
its mouth. The lower half of its course is in the infertile region. 
Above that, a hundred and thirty miles of its course lies in the 
fertile region towards the North Branch of the Saskatchewan ; and 






GO 



the remainder in the wooded region at the base of the Rocky Moun- 
tains, and its sources are in their valleys. Coal is noted by Dr. 
Hector about a hundred and seventy miles up from its mouth, and 
again a hundred miles further up. 

Capt. Blackiston estimates the average descent of the South 
Branch of the Saskatchewan, from Chesterfield House at the mouth 
of Red Deer River, down to the Forks, at two feet a mile, but says 
that those who are acquainted with the river from boating upon 
it consider it navigable for steamers. The distance is about 340 
miles. 



FERTILE GROUNDS NEAR SOURCES ON SKIRT OF ROCKY MOUNTAINS. 



Beyond the infertile region the upper course of the South Branch 
to its source, about a hundred and sixty miles, is among the Rocky 
Mountains and their lower outliers, where the country is generally 
wooded, and the valleys fertile, but very elevated. 

Capt. Blackiston's journal of exploration of a line, of about 
ninety miles S. S. E. from Bow Fort, on the Bow River,, or South 
Branch, gives a good description of the country on the skirts of the 
lower mountain ranges. 

He speaks of woods of spruce, poplar, aspen, and large rough 
barked pine; of the track being blocked with fallen timber in 
parts ; of line prairie bottoms, and others partially covered with 
scrub and willow, and fine streams ; of passing for three days in 
valleys within the outlying parallel ridges, "less wooded than 
previously passed, being for considerable part through fine prairie 
slopes," the main range visible occasionally at a distance of thirty 
miles, through gaps in the nearer mountains, of undulating 
prairie ; of the trail passing between numerous wooded ridges, 
and says " the soil of the valleys was usually a deep dark mould, 
supporting a luxuriant vegetation, of the smaller plants. This was 
the nature of most of these mountain valleys. Where the strata is 
upheaved the ground is of course rocky ; such, however, is not 
often the case in the valleys." Continues to say " soon after we 
gained the height of land between the Speechee and Belly Rivers, 
and the wide prairie valley of the latter burst upon our view." He 
then descended a short distance and camped at an elevation of four 
thousand feet above the sea. 

This elevation, which is the same as that of Bow Fort, is doubt- 
less too great to admit of the cultivation of wheat. Coarse grains 
and vegetables, however, might seemingly be cultivated. Dr. Hector 
mentions that some of the Indians who have been converted to 
Christianity cultivate little plots of ground at Bow Fort, and that 
their principal crops are turnips and potatoes. 



61 

This speaks little in favor of the climate of this locality, but on 
the other hand it is to be remarked that even this cold elevated re- 
gion presents an advantage for cattle feeding that we do not enjoy 
in Canada, which Dr. Hector especially notices, and describes as 
extending to this locality. 

He says "the most valuable feature of this belt of country, which 
also stretches from Touchwood Hills, Carleton, and Fort Pitt south 
of Edmonton to the old Bow Fort at the Eocky Mountains" (he 
had previously mentioned also the head waters of Eed Deer Eiver) 
" is the immense extent of what I shall term winter pasturage." 

- This winter pasturage consists of tracts of country partially 
wooded with poplar and willow clumps, and bearing a most lux- 
uriant growth of vetches and nutritious grasses. The clumps of 
wood afford shelter to animals, while the scrubby bush keeps the 
snow in such a loose state that they find no difficulty in feeding ; 
the large tracts of swampy country, when frozen, also afford admir- 
able feeding grounds ; and it is only towards spring, in very severe 
winters, that horses and cattle cannot be left to feed in well chosen 
localities throughout this region of country." 

Any practical man will see that such advantages, for unlimited 
cattle feeding, without the labor of clearing land and raising hay 
crops, combined with the extreme richness of soil in the valleys, 
are weighty offsets against the coolness of the summer climate. 
As for the winter Dr. Hector says, with reference to the whole 
region from Bow Fort, along the skirt of the Eocky Mountains, as 
far north as the Eiver Athabasca, " having travelled the Eocky 
Mountains at the most unfavorable period of an unusually severe 
winter, I am enabled to state that whatever may be the amount of 
snow on the heights of land and their western flank, the valleys 
of the eastern ranges are actually less encumbered by snow than 
much of the prairie country." 

It is to be observed that these remarks apply to the country on 
the east flank of the Eocky Mountains for at least three hundred 
and fifty miles northward from the United States boundary, includ- 
ing the head waters of the North Branch of the Saskatchewan, and 
the Athabasca. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

THE NORTH BRANCH OF THE SASKATCHEWAN. 

The country drained by the North Branch of the Saskatchewan, 
and its extensive tributary the Battle Eiver, though incomparably 
more valuable than the country traversed by the South Branch, 



G2 

does not require to be described so much at length, owing to its 
more uniform character. 

The North Branch, for the greater part of its course, and the 
Battle River, lie in the great belt of country which the Canadian 
and the Imperial exploring parties describe as generally fertile land 
of the first quality. 

The North Branch, for five hundred and twenty miles up from 
the Forks, and the Battle River, for its whole course of four hun- 
dred and fifty miles, (excepting a short elbow of it,) traverse a rich 
prairie country more or less interspersed with woods. 

The remaining two hundred and eighty-two miles of the upper 
course of the North Branch lie in the thick wood country, which, 
to the commencement of the mountains, about two hundred miles, 
is represented as abounding in marshes with patches of fine land in 
parts. In this distance the banks of the river display beds of 
lignite coal. Beyond it the remaining course of the river lies in 
the valleys of the mountains, to the glaciers at its source. 

The Battle Biver enters the North Branch about a hundred and 
seventy miles above the main Forks. It drains a large part of the 
country between the North and South Branches. It has its source 
about ten miles from the North Branch, thirty miles above Edmon- 
ton, but they are a hundred and thirty miles apart at the middle of 
its course, and between them the pasturage is described as very 
rich. Coal presents itself there, in the banks of the stream, two 
hundred and fifty miles from its mouth. 

The rich prairie country which covers the course of the Battle 
Eiver and the northerly part of Bed Deer Biver, and includes the 
North Branch from the forks, up to thirty miles above Edmonton,, 
has a breadth of about a hundred miles, at the forks, seventy miles 
at the mouth of Battle Biver, a hundred and fifty miles at its 
middle course, and about seventy at its source ; beyond which the 
belt of fertile prairie country becomes gradually narrower, and 
turning to the southward, up the course of the Bed Deer Biver, 
becomes merged in the fertile region on the skirt of the mountains 
below Bow Fort on the South Branch. It is bounded on the north 
by the line of the Thick Woods, which sweeps northerly parallel 
to the course of the North Branch at the distance of forty to twenty 
miles beyond it, then curving to the southward crosses it about 
thirty miles above Edmonton, and continuing in that direction 
strikes the mountains near Bow Fort, making a circuit from the 
forks of about seven hundred miles. 

This circuit of the Thick Woods is the present boundary of the 
progress of successive fires which are gradually encroaching on the 
forest, or partly wooded country, and converting it into treeless 
prairie, unless where clumps of young aspen and poplar, growing, 
up, escape the ravages of succeeding fires.. 






63 

Without entering into particulars here as to* climate, we may 
observe that Capt. Palliser, who with Dr. Hector explored a greater 
extent of the valley of Saskatchewan than had been previously 
visited by any other scientific men, says that the climate of the 
southern and western parts of it is decidedly milder than that of 
Eed Eiver. 






CHAPTER XV. 

NAVIGATION OF THE SASKATCHEWAN. 

There is a good harbour at the mouth of the Saskatchewan, from 
which the current is swift up to the foot of the Grand Eapids, 
which are three miles in length, with a fall of forty-three and a 
half feet. Above them the current is moderate for four miles to a 
rapid of one mile in length with a fall of seven feet. The ascent 
of this by a powerful steamer is said to be practicable; but the 
advantage of it might be questionable. 

From it to Cedar Lake, ten miles, the current is strong with 
several rapids. Captain Munn, of the Steamer " International," 
and Mr. Hutchison, the pilot of that vessel, who examined the 
river up to Carleton House, state that a steamer could ascend this 
distance, with the single improvement of a pier at Cross Lake. 

To connect the foot of this reach with Lake Winnepeg, a tram- 
road or railway would be sufficient. There would be no object in 
canalling past the Grand Eapids, for the vessels employed on Lake 
Winnipeg would have to be much stronger than what would be 
suitable on the Saskatchewan, so transhipment would be necessary 
at any rate. 

From the foot of Cedar Lake to "Tobern's Falls," Captain Munn 
says, the river is uninterrupted by anything to impede navigation r 
the distance is said to be a hundred and eighty miles, — probably 
not over a hundred and sixty. 

Tobern's Eapid, Captain Blackiston says, is certainly not navi- 
gable at low, and he doubts much if it be so at high water, but 
adds that the difference is so great that it is hardly safe to say. 

Damming, with lockage, to gorge the rapid would seem neces- 
sary there, or a tram road past it. 

Above Tobern's Falls, Captain Munn says, that for eight or ten 
miles the river is wide and shoal, with intermediate rapids, not 
navigable at low water. Captain Blackiston, E. E,, who ascended 
the river to Edmonton, is of opinion that there are no obstructions 
from Tobern's Eapids up to Coles' Falls or Eapids above the 







lurks, (a distance of about a hundred miles,) which could not be 
surmounted by a steamer at high water. Captain Munn, of the 
steamer " International," in his report to the Hudson's Bay Com- 
pany says, in summing up, that the Saskatchewan is a good navi- 
gable stream from the Grand Eapids up as far as Tobern's Falls, 
with the improvement suggested by him at Cross Lake. From 
Tobern's Falls to Carleton House, he did not find the river navigable, 
the water being low when he examined it, but he was informed by 
Mr. Pruden, at the latter place, that the water in the river is three* 
and a-half feet higher from the first of June to the middle of Sep- 
tember than it then was. He adds, " with this additional water, I 
«am of opinion that light draught steamers could be sent as far as I 
explored it, without any serious difficulty." He found the river 
well wooded, affording abundance for steam purposes. In this report 
his pilot fully concurred. 

Coles' Falls, immediately above the Forks, are a succession of 
rapids, twenty-six in number, from a hundred and fifty to three 
hundred feet in length each, with slack water between. Captain 
Munn includes them in the extent passable in the high water 
period mentioned. 

For twenty- two miles above the Forks the ascent per mile is 
great, and the rapids continue for eighteen miles of that distance ; 
the current is six to seven miles an hour when the water is high, 
by Professor Hind's observation, a rate of current by no means 
insurmountable by a steamer of fair power, but for safety to vessels 
the boulders should be removed from a sufficient width of the 
channel. 

Above this, for the distance of two hundred and eighty miles, 
the ascent per mile is very much less than in the lower part of the 
river. It is estimated by Mr. Thompson, who surveyed it, as being 
from six to nine inches per mile, and for a hundred and eighty 
miles further, up to Edmonton, at two feet a mile, less than half 
the rate of descent of the Ehone from Avignon to the sea. From 
Edmonton to within forty-three miles of Rocky Mountain House, 
Thompson states the ascent to be four feet to the mile. 

Captain Blackiston gives the average descent of the Saskat- 
chewan from Edmonton to Lake Winnipeg as one foot four inches 
to the mile. To the foot of Cedar Lake it would be one foot three 
inches to the mile, the same as the descent of the Rhine from 
Strasbourg to the Sea. As the Rhine is navigated throughout that 
distance by steamers and vessels of considerable tonnage, the cur- 
rent of the Saskatchewan, excepting at particular points, cannot be 
such as to present any great obstruction to steamboats. Powerful 
steamers of two feet draught, such as are used on the Rhine, would 
navigate it very freely. 



65 

From the 1st of June to the end of September, and probably for 
a longer period, such vessels could ply. 

The navigation of the Saskatchewan will probably prove to be 
nearly as useful as that of the Ohio, but less liable, on account of 
its greater volume, to interruption from low water, to which the 
navigation of the Ohio is very subject in the dry months of summer. 



CHAPTEE XVI. 

PROPORTION OF ARABLE LANDS IN SOUTH HALF OF CENTRAL 
PRAIRIE COUNTRY. 

We have now gone over that part of the- great territory under 
consideration, drained by the Saskatchewan and other tributaries 
of Lake Winnipeg, the area of which, as before stated, is about two 
hundred and eighty thousand square miles. 

Speaking of part of this area, Captain Palliser says : " The ex- 
tent of surface drained by the Saskatchewan and other tributaries 
to Lake Winnipeg which we had the opportunity of examining, 
amounts in round numbers to 150,000 square miles. This region 
is bounded to the north by what is called the 'strong woods,' 
or the southern limit of the great circum-arctic zone of forest which 
occupies these latitudes in the northern hemisphere. This line, 
which is indicated in the map, sweeps to the north-west from the 
shore of Lake Winnipeg, and reaches its most northerly limit about 
54° 30' 1ST. and long. 109° W., from whence it again passes to south- 
west, meeting the Rocky Mountains in lat. 51° K, long. 115° W. 
Between this line of the ' strong woods' and the northerly limit of 
the true prairie country, there is a belt of land varying in width, 
winch at one period must have been covered by an extension of the 
northern forests, but which has been gradually cleared by successive 
fires. 

" It is now a partially wooded country, abounding in lakes, and 
rich in natural pasturage, in some parts rivalling the finest park 
scenery of our own country. Throughout this region of country 
the climate seems to preserve the same character, although it passes 
through very different latitudes — its form being doubtless deter- 
mined by the curves of the isothermal line. Its superficial extent 
embraces about 65,000 square miles (query — geographical or statute ? 
If the former, it would be about 85,000 statute, which would agree 
with the area shown on Professor Hind's map,) of which more than 
one-third may be considered as at once available for the purposes 
of the agriculturist. Its elevation increases from 700 to 4 ? 000 feet 



as we approach the Rocky Mountains, consequently it is not equally 
adapted throughout to the cultivation of any one crop ; nevertheless, 
at Fort Edmonton, which has an altitude of 3,000 feet, even wheat 
is sometimes cultivated with success. 

" The least valuable portion of the prairie country has an extent 
of above 80,000 square miles, and is that lying along the southern 
branch of the Saskatchewan, and southward from thence to the 
boundary line ; while its northern limit is designated in the Indian 
languages as the ' edge of the woods,' the original line of the woods 
before invaded by the fire." 

. The fertile belt thus described by Captain Palliser contains, as 
represented on Dr. Hector's and Professor Hind's map, an area of 
about 85,000 statute miles, the equivalent nearly of 65,000 geo- 
graphical square miles. We have here, then, in the portion of this 
territory explored by Captain Palliser and his party, an extent of 
very fertile, mixed prairie and woodlands, three times the size of 
that part of Upper Canada from Kingston to Sarnia ; of which more 
than one-third is at once ready to receive the plough. 

This, however, does not include the very considerable portion 
of really good prairie land, already described as interspersed in the 
region classed as infertile country ; nor the Cypree Mountains south 
of the South Branch of the Saskatchewan above the Elbow, 
described as a range elevated 1,600 feet above the plains, covered 
with fine timber, abounding in excellent grass and well watered ; 
nor does it include the parts described as good of the wooded coun- 
try on the west side of Lakes Manitobah and Winnepegoos. If 
these were included, to say nothing of ground north of the line of 
*" thick woods," not yet converted by fires into prairie, the total 
would probably amount to one hundred thousand square miles esti- 
mated by Mr. Dawson, in his report, as suitable for settlement. 

It would be absurd to expect any country in a state of nature 
to be all equally fit to receive the plough at once. The one-third 
of the fertile region, estimated by Captain Palliser as being so, is a 
very fair proportion ; the other two-thirds, no doubt, are parts 
requiring draining or partial clearing. It would also be absurd to 
suppose it to be all equally fertile. There is a considerable differ- 
ence between the deep beds of black vegetable mould which prevail 
chiefly in the Eed Paver valley, and the rich sandy loam spoken of 
in some other parts ; and there are the occasional bad spots and 
poor sandy ground, which we expect to find in all countries, though 
there are, apparently, tracts of great extent unusually free from 
them. 

As for the 80,000 square miles (about a hundred thousand 
statute square miles) which Captain Palliser designates as the least 
valuable part of the Prairie Country, it will no doubt, as he says, 



67 

" be for ever comparatively useless," with the exception of such tracts 
as the Cypree Mountains, and others where there is good grass with 
wood and water. These, with the richer parts of the vast green 
treeless plains, will afford great scope for cattle feeding after the 
great fertile region has become occupied. 

Messrs. Cooper and Sueklay, the Naturalists of the U. S. Pacific 
Eailway Exploration, identify the same kind of dry prairie country 
of Nebraska (of which this is a continuation) with the " perpetual 
steppes" of Eussia in Europe. There the pasturage or green sward 
is not even continuous, except in very low valleys, as stated by Mr. 
Haxhausen, and it is not uncommon for twenty months to pass 
without rain. Yet these grounds, he says, afford excellent pasture, 
especially for sheep, and yield, where cultivated, sixfold to one 
sown of wheat and rye, which he observes is greater than the aver- 
age yield of Eussia in Europe. 

These steppes are stated to be increasing in population by immi- 
gration from the northern parts of the Empire, now attracted to 
them. Buckwheat, Indian Corn, Oats, Barley and Beets grow there 
abundantly. 

We have now taken a general view of the south part of the 
section under consideration, or that part of it which is comonly 
called Eupert's Land. It is not usual to include more than this in 
speaking of the capacity of the country for settlement. But it is 
far from being all that is fit for agricultural occupation. We have 
still the countries lying on the Athabasca and Peace Eivers, the 
Eiver of the Mountains, Hay's Eiver and the upper part of Beaver 
Eiver, suitable for settlement, to go over, to complete the great sec- 
tion of available country under consideration. 

In beginning to treat of this great section of territory, it was 
stated, that in applying the term Central Prairie Land to it, that 
expression was meant merely to indicate this section as one contain- 
ing prairie land, with the distinction, that prairies prevailed in the 
southern half, and woods in the northern half, with occasional 
prairie tracts. It is the latter which we have now to consider, 
under the divisions indicated by its rivers. It contains an area of 
about two hundred thousand superficial miles. 






68 



CHAPTER XVII. 



THE BEAVER OR UPPER CHURCHILL RIVER. 



The Beaver Eiver has its source about forty miles only from the 
North Saskatchewan at Edmonton, beyond the line of the " strong 
woods." 

Its course to Hudson's Bay is about eleven hundred miles in 
length, of which five hundred miles lie within the section under 
consideration. 

For two hundred and fifty miles from its source, its course is in 
the plain country of Silurian or more recent formations. It then, 
below Isle a la Crosse, enters the great primary or azoic belt, which 
covers the remainder. of its course within this section. It may be 
considered as draining part of the same plain as the Saskatchewan, 
their basins being divided only by rocks a few feet in height. At 
Frog Portage, two hundred and thirty miles lower, crossing to a 
tributary of the Saskatchewan, the waters of the Beaver or 
Churchill flow over into it at high flood. 

Sir John Eichardson says that the Beaver Eiver drains a com- 
paratively small extent of prairie land, and Capt. Palliser describes 
the country between it and the forks of the Saskatchewan as a 
thick wood country, with many lakes abounding in fish. Lying on 
the same formations, it no doubt resembles the fertile belt on the 
North Branch of the Saskatchewan before its prairies were cleared 
of timber by devastating fires. 

Sir Alex. McKenzie speaks favorably of the soil on the upper 
part of the Beaver Eiver, . of the buffaloes ranging the partial 
patches of prairie along it, and of a garden at Isle a la Crosse, 
that well repaid the labor bestowed on it. He speaks of Lake a la 
Crosse abounding in " the finest fish in the world," and of the rich- 
ness of its surrounding banks and forests in moose and fallow deer, 
with the vast number of the smaller tribes of animals, and the 
numerous flocks of wild fowl." 

As its Indian name Missinipi, much water, implies, the Beaver, 
or Churchhill as it is called in its lower course, is a river of great 
volume. At Island Portage, above Frog Portage, Sir J. Eichardson 
speaks of its being five or six hundred yards wide, where pent up 
and narrow, with a strong current. Eastward of Lac a la Crosse, 
where it passes through the primary or azoic formation, the soil of 
the country is poor, sandy, stony and rocky. Describing part of it, 
Sir John Eichardson says the general aspect of it is like the coun- 
try on the north shores of Lake Superior, though the water basin is 
not so deeply excavated. 







69 
CHAPTER XVIII. 

THE EIVER ATHABASCA. 

Westward and northward of the Beaver Eiver country lies the 
greater region drained by the Eiver Athabasca and its tributaries. 

The Eiver Athabasca, though not the largest, is the most south- 
erly and far extending branch of the Eiver McKenzie. It has its 
source between glaciers, among mountains whose highest peaks rise 
to 15,000 feet, in lat.'52° 20' K, and long. 118° 25' W., near the 
north bend of the Columbia Eiver. It reaches almost across the 
Eocky Mountains towards the Boat encampment, on a feeder of the 
Columbia; the narrow valley of its main stream forming there 
the Athabasca Pass, while that of a more northerly arm is the site 
of the Leather Pass known as the Tete Jaune or Yellow-Head 
Pass. 

At Jasper House, which stands in a 'wide valley within the 
second range, about ninety miles bebow the source of the river, 
Dr. Hector describes the mountains as rising magnificently to the 
height of 5,400 feet above its bed, or 7,300 above the sea. Chang- 
ing from north to north-east, its general direction, at a hundred 
and eighty miles further, (the greater part of the way among the 
mountains and their lower ranges,) it receives, on the south, 
McLeod's Eiver. 

At Fort Assiniboine, about three hundred and sixty miles from 
its source, Dr. Hector describes it as a stream 300 yards in width, 
flowing in a valley from one to two miles wide, and 250 feet below 
the level of the surrounding plain. At about forty miles lower, it 
receives, on the south, the Pembina, a river about two hundred and 
fifty miles in length ; at thirty miles lower the Lesser Slave Lake 
Eiver from the North : — the lake is a hundred miles in length, the 
river from it about forty. From this it makes an elbow south-east- 
ward, and then turns nearly north, which general direction it main- 
tains, to its mouth at Lake Athabasca, receiving midway, at a 
hundred and fifty miles from its mouth, Clear Water Eiver, on the 
south-east, from Methy Portage. The whole length of the Athabasca 
is nearly nine hundred miles. 

Sir John Eichardson describes the Athabasca, at its junction 
with the Clear Lake Eiver, as a majestic stream, between a quarter 
and a half mile wide, with a considerable current but without 
rapids. Sir Alex. McKenzie says it is about three quarters of a 
mile wide, and runs with a steady current, sometimes contracting 
but never increasing its channel, till, after receiving several small 
streams, it discharges itself into the Lake of the Hills (Lake 



Athabasca.) He mentions that, about twenty-four miles below 
the mouth of Clear Water Eiver, there are some bituminous foun- 
tains, into which a pole may be inserted without the least re- 
sistance. 

He mentions that, in 1787, he found Mr. Fond, one of the 
north-west Traders, residing on the Elk Eiver, (the Athabasca) 
forty miles from its mouth, where he remained for three years, and 
had formed as line a kitchen garden as he (McKenzie) had ever 
seen in Canada — which is not surprising, as the line of mean 
summer temperature of Halifax, Nova Scotia, passes through that 
vicinity. 

The bed of the Athabasca is described as being in many places 
deeply cut below the level of the prairie plateau, which is not 
separated, by any marked ridge, from the prairie country of the 
Saskatchewan. Near Lake Athabasca, the high banks of the river's 
bed sink into the alluvial lands of the delta at its mouth. From 
the west end of that lake the combined waters of the Athabasca 
and the Peace Eiver, under the name of Slave Eiver, flow north- 
ward to Great Slave Lake, in what is described as the fracture be- 
tween the Silurian and primitive rocks. 

Mr. David Thompson and Sir John Eichardson describe lime- 
stone as prevailing throughout the lower course of the Athabasca, 
generally under beds of sandy soil saturated with bitumen, some- 
times of great depth. Thirty miles below Clear Water Eiver the 
limestone beds are covered with bituminous deposit, upwards of a 
hundred feet thick. The roots of living trees and herbaceous plants 
push themselves deep into beds highly impregnated with bitumen, 
and, Sir John adds, the forest where that mineral is most abundant 
does not suffer in its growth. He states that below Eiviere Eouge, 
a tributary, a copious spring of mineral pitch issues from a crevice 
in a cliff, composed of sand and bitumen, in the middle of a thick 
wood. It seems rather to increase than impair the fertility of the 
soil. Below Pierre au Calumet, he says : " the whole country, for 
many miles, is so full of bitumen, that it flows readily into a pit 
dug a few feet below the surface. Below Clear Water Eiver, he 
speaks of pretty thick layers of lignite coal appearing in one of the 
cliffs. On the upper part of the river, above Fort Assiniboine, Dr. 
Hector states that lignite coal appears in the banks, though not so 
much as in the Saskatchewan. 

The Athabasca country, " from Methy Portage, westward," Sir 
John Eichardson says, " though deeply furrowed by river courses 
and ravines, and more or less thickly wooded, partakes so much of a 
prairie character that horsemen may travel over it to Lesser Slave 
Lake and the Saskatchewan," (three hundred and fifty miles,) and 
adds that in 1849 a fine body of upwards of forty horses came 
through early in the season, and in good condition. 







71 

The following extracts from Mr. Thompson's journal indicate 
the nature of the soil and climate of the upper Athabasca, en route 
from Edmonton to the Forks of the Athabasca. He says " he set 
off with three men and five horses on 19th April, 1799, rivers open; 
20th, white frost in the morning, but fine warm day. 

" 21st. Very fine day, through thick woods, much wet ground 
and deep mud, small prairies occasionally — reached the Pembina 
Eiver in the afternoon in- a fine meadow. 

" The soil for these three days has been in general a very fine 
black vegetable mould, with very little sand. It is also the same 
from Fort George to Fort Augustus in the interior country, though 
intermixed with more sand, and in a few places ridges of sand 
hills." 

This description, it is to be observed, refers to a hundred and 
fifty miles of country. He then descends the Eiver Pembina 
for three days ; " banks well wooded, with small meadows ; soil, 
sandy earth — woods, birch, aspen pine and poplar." 

His Journal continues to say : " April 25th. — Sandy earth, in 
banks ; they are high near the Athabasca. Enter Athabasca Eiver, 
250 to 350 yards wide ; banks, including inner bank, 80 to 120 feet 
high. White sandy earth, woods mostly pine ; there is also birch, 
aspen and poplar. 

26th. " Always fine weather." Ascends Little Slave Eiver. 

27th. " ISTo portaging yet ;" is on west branch of Little Slave 
Eiver, then on right branch ; high hills in sight — wet grassy 
meadows, Buffalo and Moose abundant, by tracks. 

28th. " Cold blustry frosty morning ; came to Slave Lake; Lake 
partly open and part sound ice ;" hills round lake 800 feet high. 

29th. " On Main Athabasca, very deep strong current, 220 to 
250 yards wide ; banks, 240 to 360 feet over river; mild cloudy 
day." 

1st May " Clear sharp frosty morning — banks, sinking to low 
ones, or valleys, then swelling to hills 200 to 240 feet high with 
small pines, mossy surface, the soil is now mostly a bluish clay 
mixed with niarL" 

2nd. " Canoe birch trees, many of them 2 J to 4 feet round ; 
found a poplar two fathoms round." 

Here we have evidence of a country of varied character, but 
presenting in its sandy earth, blue clay, and a hundred and fifty 
miles of generally rich black mould, a great deal of fair arable land, 
much of it of the best quality imaginable ; and with a spring quite 
as early as Lower Canada generally. 

But it is important to notice that it presents something, of much 
value, that we have not in Canada. Dr. Hector mentions that 
where he crossed the Eiver Pembina " a bed of coal is exposed in 



72 



its banks eight feet thick, and at one point has previously been on 
fire." As the Pembina is a large stream from 90 to 110 yards wide, 
with a moderately strong current, it may afford the means of trans- 
port ; and as there is much good land in the vicinity, as we have 
seen, this coal, which extends to the main Athabasca, may be useful 
fuel for future settlements, even before the wood, which is not of 
the best quality, becomes exhausted. The country on the upper 
waters of the Athabasca, like that around Edmonton on the Sas- 
katchewan, adjoining, is no doubt too elevated to be favorable for 
the growth of wheat. This is greatly balanced by the extreme fer- 
tility of much of the land, and the advantages it offers for cattle 
feeding. The objection of over elevation does not lie against the 
remainder of the Athabasca Country. 

Mr. McLean, a gentleman who had resided twenty-five years 
in the North-west Territory, speaks of the banks of the Athabasca 
and Slave Eiver as presenting many localities fit for farming, and 
Ross Cox says of the Athabasca : " It is here a noble river, flowing 
through a rich pasture country, thinly wooded." A little further 
on he adds, " For the last one hundred and twenty miles its navi- 
gation was uninterrupted by rapids, with a smooth steady current, 
and the soil on each bank was of the richest description." 

Speaking of the valley of Clear Water Eiver, one of its tribu- 
taries, towards the eastern side of the section of territory we have 
under consideration, looking on it from an eminence, Sir Alexander 
McKenzie says: 

" From thence the eye looks down on the course of the little 
river, by some called the Swan Eiver, and by others the Clear 
Water and Pelican Eiver, beautifully meandering for thirty miles. 
The valley, which is at once refreshed and adorned by it, is about 
three miles in breadth, and is confined by two lofty ridges of equal 
height, displaying a most delightful intermixture of wood and 
lawn, and stretching on till the blue mists obscure the prospect ; 
some parts of the inclining heights are clothed with stately forests, 
relieved by promontories of the finest verdure, where the elk and 
buffalo find pasture." 

Sir John Eichardson describes the scenery as unequalled, the 
soil as sandy, but on a limestone basis, which is favorable to its 
warmth as well as to its fertility. 







CHAPTEK XIX. 

THE PEACE RIVER. 

The Peace Kiver is the largest branch of the Eiver McKenzie., 
Its head waters lie beyond the Eocky Mountains, where its north 
and south branches drain the great valley to the westward, between 
the Eocky Mountains and the Peak Eange. Its south branch is 
about two hundred miles long, and its north branch, the Findlay 
Eiver, is nearly three hundred. 

The Findlay, or Main Peace Eiver, is represented as having its 
remotest source in a lake beyond the Peak Eange, about lat. 
56° 30' N., long. 126° W., about two hundred miles from the 
Pacific. 

A little eastward from the junction of its branches, the Peace 
Eiver traverses the Eocky Mountains, and enters the section of 
territory under consideration, through a gap, which forms one of 
the passes leading to the coast of the Pacific — it was through it 
that Sir Alex. McKenzie first penetrated to that ocean. 

From the Forks the course of the Peace Eiver is nearly due 
east for two hundred and forty miles, to Fort Dunvegan; passing 
Eocky Mountain House nearly at half way. From Dunvegan its 
course is northward for a hundred and forty miles, then nearly 
east north-east for about three hundred and thirty-five miles, to its 
mouth. Fort Vermilion is about two hundred and fifty-five miles 
from its mouth, and the Falls, of about twenty feet in height, are 
about forty-five miles below it. 

The whole length of Peace Eiver, rejecting lesser sinuosities 
inappreciable on a good map, is about a thousand and fifteen 
miles ; which, when added to the remaining course of the McKen- 
zie, makes the length of that river two thousand four hundred and 
seventy miles. 

The delta of the mouth of Peace Eiver, and the country between 
it and the mouth of the Athabasca, is a low alluvial flat, formed 
by the sediment brought down by the high floods, which at some 
seasons entirely overflow it. McKenzie says further, "The 
country in general is low from the entrance of the river to the 
Falls, and with the exception of a few open parts covered with 
grass, it is clothed with wood. Where the banks are very low, 
the soil is good, being composed of the sediment of the river and 
putrefied leaves and vegetables." Where they are more elevated, 
they display a face of yellowish clay, mixed with small stones. 
On a line with the Falls, and on either side of the jiver, there are 
said to be very extensive plains which afford pasture to numerous 
herds of buffaloes." 









74 



He says, " The banks of, the river from the Falls are in general 
lofty, except at low woody points, accidentally formed in the 
manner I have mentioned ; they also displayed in all their broken 
parts a face of clay, intermixed with stones ; in some places there 
likewise appeared a black mould." Speaking of cultivation, he 
says, " There is not the least doubt but the soil would be very pro- 
ductive, if proper attention was given to its preparation." 

At low water the Peace Eiver does not exceed a quarter of a 
mile in breadth below the falls ; at the falls it is four hundred yards. 
Its width up to the Eocky Mountains continues much the same, 
sometimes attaining eight hundred yards. It has much less des- 
cent than the Saskatchewan. From Dunvegan to its mouth, about 
four hundred and seventy-live miles apparently, but which. Capt. 
Lefroy, probably quoting the reputed distances, calls six hundred 
and fifty miles, there occur, he says, but the falls mentioned and a 
few rapids ; the bed of the stream preserves a nearly uniform incli- 
nation, rising only three hundred and ten feet. 

He says the stream is more rapid above Fort Vermilion than 
below it, and that the depth of the bed of the river, below the sur- 
rounding country, increases with great uniformity upwards. About 
sixty miles above Fort Vermilion, where it has cut through alter- 
nating sandstone and limestone cliffs to a bed of shale, it flows at 
a depth of two hundred feet below their summits. 

He adds : " The general elevation of the country, however, still 
continues to increase, and at Dunvegan it is six hundred feet above 
the bed of the stream ; yet even at this point, except in approach- 
ing the deep gorges, through which the tributaries of Peace River 
join its waters, there is little indication of an elevated country; 
the Eocky Mountains are not visible, and no range of hills meets 
the eye." 

Captain Lefroy gives 1,600 feet' as the elevation of the country 
about Dunvegan above the sea; and the region in which the river 
has its sources is probably four times as high, according to Sir J. 
Eichardson. 

In latitude and longtitude corresponding with Dunvegan, how- 
ever, McKenzie speaks of the Deer Mountains being seen, at a 
distance to the westward, as " an immense ridge of highland or 
mountains which take an oblique direction from below the falls." 
He adds, under date December, 1792 : " Opposite our present situa- 
tion are beautiful meadows, with various animals grazing on them, 
and groves of poplar irregularly scattered over them." 

Describing the country immediately above that, on resuming 
his journey the following spring, on the 10th of May he says : — 
" From the place which we quitted this morning, the west side of 
the river displayed a succession of the most beautiful scenery I had 



75 

ever beheld The ground rises at intervals to a considerable height, 
and stretches inwards to a considerable distance ; at every interval 
or pause in the rise there is a gently ascending space or lawn, 
which is alternate with abrupt precipices to the summit of the 
whole, or at least as far as the eye could distinguish. This magni- 
ficent theatre of nature has all the decorations which the trees and 
animals of the country can afford it ; groves of poplars in every 
shape enliven the scene ; and their intervals are enlivened with 
vast herds of elks and buffaloes ; the former choosing the steep 
uplands, and the latter preferring the plains. At this time the 
buffaloes were attended with their young ones, and it appeared that 
the elks would soon exhibit the same enlivening circumstance. The 
whole country exhibited an exuberant verdure ; the trees that bear 
a blossom were advancing fast to that delightful appearance." He 
adds, " the east side of the river consists of a range of highland 
covered with spruce and soft birch, while the banks abound with 
the alder and willow." 

As it w^as on the 10th of May that McKenzie found things in 
this condition, it is evident, not only that it is a fine country, but 
also that the spring is earlier than in the most favorable parts of 
Lower Canada. 

AVe might suppose that this was an unusually early spring, were 
it not that the meteorological observations of Mr. David Thomp- 
son, at the same place, give quite as favorable indications as to the 
climate. Only-twice in the month of May, 1803, on the 2nd and 
14th, did the thermometer at 5 o'clock A.M. fall to 30°, and only 
twice was it as low as 36° at that hour, and that never after the 
14th of that month. Frost did not occur in the fall till the 27th 
September. It freezes much later in May in Canada ; and at Mon- 
treal, for seven years out of the last nine, the first frost occurred 
between 24th August and 16th September. 

Elevated as Dunvegan on Peace Eiver is, nine hundred and ten 
feet above the sea by Lefroy, seven hundred and seventy-eight by 
Eichardson, and under the high latitude of 56° 6' ~N., it may be 
interesting to compare the mean temperature of the seven months 
from April to October, inclusively, of the year 1803, with the mean 
temperature of Halifax, Nova Scotia, lat. 44° 30' K, as given in 
the table of temperatures a few pages forward. 

It shows the monthly mean temperature at Dunvegan to be 
fully a degree, and that of the three summer months to be about 
two degrees, warmer than at Halifax. 

The three coldest months in winter are, on the other hand, 
intensely cold compared with Halifax — an admirable arrangement 
for utility. The milder winter of Halifax would be comparatively 
valueless at Dunvegan, but it is of the utmost importance at Hali- 
fax, which owes its open winter navigation to it. 



76 

Nothing conclusive can be based on one year's observations ; but 
combined with other indications of climate, they afford favorable 
evidence. 

From what McKenzie says of the countiy about a hundred 
miles above Dunvegan, it would seem very favorable for cattle- 
feeding, and for the raising of at least the coarser grains. " Some 
parts," he says, " offer beautiful scenery in some degree similar to 
that which we passed on the second day of our voyage, and equally 
enlivened with elk and buffalo, which were feeding in great numbers." 

A little further, twelve miles above Sinew Eiver, he says : " The 
land above where we camped spreads into an extensive plain, and 
stretches on to a very high ridge, which in some parts presents a 
face of rock, but is principally covered with verdure, and varied 
with the poplar and white birch tree. The country is so crowded 
with animals as to have the appearance in some places of a stall- 
yard, from the state of the ground and the quantity of dung that 
is scattered over it. The soil is black and light." 

Two days' journey, by the river, above this, where the country 
is wooded heavily, McKenzie speaks, in crossing a portage, of the 
forest being of spruce and birch, and the largest poplars he had 
ever seen. Further on he speaks of travelling through heavy woods 
of spruce, red pine, cypress, poplar, white birch and willow, and of 
travelling through tall pine woods. Soil light, and of a dusty 
colour over gravelly clay. The river still from 400 to 800 yards 
wide, diminishing to 200 where confined. It is here passing 
through the Eocky Mountains, which do not rise apparently more 
than 1,500 feet above their base— bare of wood in the upper parts, 
wooded at the base. The bed of the river is limestone, and the 
mountains solid masses of the same. 

On the 27th of May the trees towards the bases of the moun- 
tains were, he says, putting forth their leaves. It is worthy of 
remark, as indicating earliness of spring in these mountain valleys, 
notwithstanding their great elevation and consequent coldness, 
that the putting forth of the leaves here spoken of is a day or 
two earlier than it was with us in the neighbourhood of Ottawa 
this season, (1867). Towards the Forks of the Findlay and South 
Branch he speaks of the mountains being covered with wood. 

These wooded slopes and valleys of the mountains may be no- 
ticed as presenting a supply of timber which may, in future times, 
be valuable for the use of the prairie regions below. 

Speaking of the Peace liiver country, Sir John Bichardson 
says, " The oaks, the elms, the ashes, the Weymouth pine and 
the pitch pine, which reach the Saskatchewan basin, are wanting 
here ; the balsam fir is rare ; but as these trees form no prominent 
feature of the landscape in the former quarter, no marked change 
in the woodland scenery takes place, in any part of the McKenzie 



77 

Uiver district, until we approach the shores of the Arctic Sea." 
The white spruce continues to be the predorninent tree in dry soils, 
whether rich or poor; the Banksean pine occupies a few sandy 
spots ; the black spruce skirts the marshes ; and the balsam, poplar 
and aspen, fringe the streams. The white birch attains a good size, 
even up to latitude 65° in sheltered positions, that is, nearly to 
six hundred and fifty miles north of Dunvegan. 



CHAPTBR XX. 



SLAYE RIVER. 



Slave Eiver, which carries the united waters of the Athabasca 
and the Peace Eiver, and of Lake Athabasca, from that Lake to 
Slave Lake, is about two hundred miles in length. It is, properly 
speaking, a portion of the main Eiver McKenzie. It lies beyond 
the section of territory we have under consideration, and north- 
eastward from it. McKenzie describes the country on its west 
bank as having a soil of rich black mould, covered with a growth 
of heavy wood towards the river, with extensive plains, immedi- 
ately behind, frequented by numerous herds of buffalo. 

Though stated by Mr. McLean as suitable for farming purposes, 
the country on Slave Eiver is not included within the limits 
■roughly assumed for the section under consideration, on account 
of the apparent severity of the climate. Before reaching Slave 
Lake on the 9th of June, McKenzie found the ground was not 
thawed beyond the depth of fourteen inches ; yet, the leaves of the 
trees had attained their full growth, which is but little if anything 
later than in Lower Canada. 

THE HAY RIVER, 

Hay Eiver, a tributary of Slave Lake, is nearly four hundred 
miles in length. Three-quarters of its course lie within the section 
before us, of which it unwaters the north-eastern corner. 

It has two branches ; the west one rises in Hay Lake ; the other 
rises not far from the banks of Peace Eiver, and flows at no great 
distance from Fort Vermilion. The country on this branch is 
described by Sir J. Eichardson as an agreeable mixture of prairie 
and woodland, and frequented by vast bands of buffaloes. 

This he says is the limit of those vast prairies which extend 
from New Mexico. Below the forks of Hay Eiver the country on 
it is covered with forests, and intersected with swamps. 
THE RIVER OF THE MOUNTAINS. 

This large tributaiy of the McKenzie is formed of two great 
branches beyond the Eocky Mountains, which it traverses about 



78 

seventy miles below their junction, or nearly four hundred miles 
from the source of either. It flows for about a hundred and 
seventy miles through this section, first due east and then due 
north, to latitude 60° K, and at a hundred and ninety miles further, 
on the same course, enters the McKenzie, at Fort Simpson, after 
a course of about seven hundred and fifty miles. It is half a mile 
wide at its mouth. 

Its lower course is through a country of limestone formation ; 
.the mountains are composed of it and it appears, in the rapids of 
the river. 

Fort Liard is situated on«it near latitude 60° K, below the 
sharp turn it takes to the north. Speaking of it, Eichardson says : 
" Though this post is more elevated than Fort Simpson, by at least 
a hundred and fifty feet, and is only two degrees of latitude to the 
southward, its climate is said to be very superior, and its vegetable 
productions of better growth and quality. Barley and oats yield 
good crops, and in favorable seasons wheat ripens well." This place, 
then he adds, " on the 60th parallel may be considered as the nor- 
thern limit of the economical culture of wheat." A little further 
he says, " Mr. McPherson had most kindly set aside for me a cask 
of excellent corned beef, cured at the fort, and some bags of very 
fine potatoes raised at Fort Liard, with several other things." 

The great elbow of this river, with its eastern branch, which 
has a course of about a hundred and seventy miles, together with 
Smith's branch which enters above it, on ,the north-west side, drain 
the north-west angle of the section under consideration. 

As the outlines of this section were assumed to include, in a 
general way, the extent of country fit for agricultural occupation, 
the parallel of latitude 60° was adopted as its northern boundary, 
from its being apparently the northern limit of the profitable culti- 
vation of wheat. 

Such being the climate at that latitude on the Eiver of the 
Mountains, it may reasonably be assumed to be fully as favorable 
in the country extending two hundred miles further south, on its 
eastern branch and on Hay Eiver. 



CHAPTER XXL 

CLIMATE AND FITNESS FOR AGRICULTURAL OCCUPATIONS. 

We have already noticed, in some degree, the climate of the 
northern and less favorably situated parts of this great central 
section, containing more or less prairie land.. 



We have noted the indications of it at Mr. Pond's settlement, 
near Lake Athabasca, towards its north-eastern angle, McKenzie's 
description of the earliness of the spring at Dunvegan, and above 
it towards the Bocky Mountains, on Peace Eiver, with Mr. David 
Thompson's highly favorable thermometrical record of that region, 
though so elevated, and lastly what Eichardson has recorded as to 
the climate and cultivation at Fort Liard, in the north-west corner 
of this section. We have next to consider the climate of the 
middle and southern, or more favorable parts of it. 

As bearing on the climate of this section, and the other north- 
west territories, it may be well to repeat a few general observations. 

The warm current of the Pacific Ocean, flowing up along the 
western coast of North America, gives it a comparatively warm, 
and temperate climate, as the Gulf Stream does to the north-western 
coasts of the old world, accompanied with humidity, in both cases, 
giving much rain. The temperature of the east coast is, on the 
contrary, much reduced by the cold current from the Arctic Sea, 
with its icebergs flowing southward along it. 

Thus, Sitka on the Pacific coast, in lat. 57° 03' 1ST., has an 
annual mean temperature (45° by Baer) fully higher than that of 
Halifax, N. S., in lat. 44° 39', (which is about 43°). Nor is the 
difference from this cause confined to the immediate seaboard; 
Montreal, two hundred miles from the Atlantic, lat. 45° 31' N., has 
a mean annual temperature of about 43°, while Fort Dallas in 
Oregon, lat, 45° 36'K, two hundred miles from the Pacific, has an 
annual mean of about 52°. 

Hudson's Bay being an expansion of the same cold ice-bearing 
Arctic waters, has the same cooling effect, not only on the regions 
adjoining, but also in some degree on the country lying more 
remotely between it and the Eiver St. Lawrence and its Lakes. 
Accordingly, it is not till we pass westward of the parallel to which 
Hudson's Bay extends — and that is half-way between the Straits of 
Belle Isle and the Pacific — that we find any great change in the 
direction of the lines of equal mean annual temperature. 

Yet, though the mean annual temperature remains nearly the 
same in going due westward so far, the climate for agricultural 
purposes improves very much after leaving the sea coast. Thus, 
Montreal has a mean temperature for three summer months of 68°, 
while that of Halifax is only 61°, and Green Bay, Lake Michigan, in 
the same latitude as Halifax, has a summer mean of 69°, though its 
annual mean is only 44°.* 

* It is proper to observe that authorities differ materially as to temperatures, from 
various causes ; partly through actual variety in the years observed, and partly, pro- 
bably, owing to errors in instruments and oversight as to the position of them. 



80 

West of Lake Superior, about long. 94° W., the lines of equal mean 
annual temperature curve to a north-west direction, and maintain it 
diagonally, through this section, till deflected again to the south- 
ward at the high grounds at the base of the Rocky Mountains, 
where the rapidly increasing elevation reduces the temperature. 

The result of this rapid increase of heat westward towards the 
Pacific, except where interrupted by the elevation and consequent 
cold temperature of the Rocky Mountain ranges, is, as would appear 
from the observations of Mr. David Thompson, that Dunvegan, on 
Peace River, lat. 56° 17' N., has a mean annual temperature of 35° 
51', equal to that of Fort William on Lake Superior, lat. 48° 23' K, 
with a mean temperature for four summer months, May to August, 
inclusive, of 62° 9', while that of Fort William for the same months 
is only 57° 13', or 59° 9' for the warmest three of them ; yet Dunve- 
gan is about five hundred and forty miles further north than Fort 
William. 

Even Fort Simpson, in lat. 61° 41/ N., on the river of the Moun- 
tains, about a hundred and fifteen miles north of the assumed out- 
line of the section now before us, has a mean summer temperature 
for three months, of 59° 48', and for five months, from May to Sep- 
tember, inclusive, a mean of 55° 15', nearly the same as that of 
Fort William, which for the same months is 55° 32'. Fort Simpson 
is about nine hundred and fifty miles further north than Fort 
William. 

The following table will afford the means of further compari- 
sons : 






31 

Table of Mean Temperatures in the North-West Territory and Canadian 
Provinces Compared. 



Months. 



April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

Mean... 

Do. of three Sum 
mer months 

November 

December 

January 

February 

March 

Mean 

Do. of the year 






t-3 a> M 



r° j£ "£ 

%<3 



8^' ^ 

Bop™ 



31°.42 

48°.87 
58°.73 
62°. 19 
58°.84 
48°. 16 
41°.88 



o0°.01 



59°.92 



23°. 43 

18°. 16 

5°. 70 

8°. 22 

22°.72 



02 ^ 



pq 



jf §>*! 



2 <W 



<Jj 



25° 

50° 
59° 
70° 
60° 
48° 
39° 



50°. 14 



63 c 



11° 

5° 
5° 
2° 
6° 



15°. 64 



5°. 80 



35°.69 31° 






•—J 03 



37°.5 

47°.3 

54°.5 

59°.7 

60° 

55° 

45°.7 



CO P" 

■IIP 
II s 



•* 
= 



OS 



<1h3 



38° 

48° 

56°. 3 

62°.3 

63°. 7 

57° 

47° 



51°.38 53°. 18 



58°.06 60°.76 



37°.5 

25°.5 
18°.6 
21°.6 

28° 



39°.3 

25°. 7 
25°.0 
24°.3 
29°.0 



26°. 24 ; 28°. 66 



40°.90 ! 42°. 



C3 . 
• 02 j^ 

O c3 tx 

si* 

r-H eg 

<Jh3 



c5,§ 

jg-S 

.So* 

■id co 

5^ 



<1h^ 



37°.6 

64° 

64°.5 

63° 

60° 

55° 

40° 



54°.8' 



62°.50 



14°.6 

-4° 

2° 
22°. 5 



8°.42 



35°.51 



/ 

37°.9 
51°.6 
63°. 1 
67°.5 
65°.9 
57°. 6 
44°.6 



55°.45 



65°.50 



34°. 1 
17°.7 
11°.7 

14°.8 
25°.l 



20°.68 



40°.99 



^ o 

~ CD 

£^ * 

00 ~ 
CD CO 

-j C3 
<3^ 









<u os 
o . 



CD 



CO o 

<Jh3 



39°.83 

58°.46 

69°.10 

71°.16 

63°.3 

59°.26 

42°.20 



57°.58 



67°.76 



21 c .19 
-8°.31 
-10°.55 
-1°.71 
t*9°.09 



tl°.94 



34°.39 



h 

41°.2 

51°.5 

61° 

66°.3 

65°.7 

57°.4 

45° 



55°.44 



64°.33 



36°.l 

27° 
24°.8 
23°.7 
30°.2 



28°.36 



44°.16 



*More correctly about 600 feet. 
t Citadel Cape Diamond. 

a Sir John Richardson. 

h David Thompson, 1789-90. 

e " " 1803. 

c Tables by Mr. J. Murdock, of St. John's. 

d From a paper read by Col. Byers at the Nova Scotia Institute of Science. 

fh Lieutenant Ashe. 

g Professor Hind. 









82 



It must be observed that Capt. Blackiston gives the mean 
summer temperature at Fort Garry at nearly four degrees less than 
Mr. Hind, who admits that necessary corrections had not been 
applied to the above observations used by him, but says that he 
thinks the winter observations too low through probable error in 
the particular instrument used by the observer who made them ; 
but as Capt. Blackiston made use in part of observations by the 
same person, the inferiority of the instrument might possibly slightly 
affect Capt. Blackiston's conclusions. Lorin Blodget, in his climat- 
ology, gives Fort Garry a mean summer temperature of 65°, which 
corresponds with that assigned to it by Governor Stevens in his re- 
port of Pacific Bailway Surveys. Blackiston and Hind, however, 
agree in the mean annual temperature. 

Climat6logists, according to the European practice, divide the 
year into four seasons of three months each, in their tables. Such 
division is unsuitable in our northern countries for the considera- 
tion of the climate with a view to the practical purposes of agricul- 
ture. As it is more natural, owing to the suddenness of the transi- 
tions from one to the other in Canada, to consider the year under 
two great divisions — the frozen and the warm seasons — the mean 
of seven months for the latter and five for the former are shown in 
the foregoing table. 

Admitting an error of four degrees in Professor Hind's summer 
temperature, which the corrections would chiefly affect, and deduct- 
ing one-half of it, as its mean, from the temperature of the seven 
warm months at Port Garry, the mean of them would be 55°58, or 
fully half a degree warmer than the mean of the corresponding 
seven months at Toronto. 

As the result of careful observations by Capt. Palliser's assis- 
tants, Capt. Blackiston assigns the same temperature as that of 
Port Garry to Fort Carleton, on the North Branch of the Saskat- 
chewan, above the forks. This agrees with the isotherm of mean 
summer of 65°, as represented by Governor Stevens. He carries 
it from Green Bay, in Wisconsin, to the Little Falls, between St. 
Paul's and Fort Kipley, in Minnesota, by Fort Garry, and crossing 
Lake Manitobah, by Fort Pelly, on the Assiniboine, to the Forks of 
the Saskatchewan, and thence north-westward to the sources of the 
Beaver Biv'er, He gives the middle course of the North Saskat- 
chewan and of the Athabasca, the mean winter temperature of 
Fort Pvipley, or 10°. Capt. Palliser, who explored the Saskatchewan 
country personally, says its climate is somewhat similar to that of 
Bed Eiver, but decidedly milder in the southern and western parts. 

There is besides conclusive evidence of such a difference. Pro- 
fessor Hind*observed the temperature of the waters of the North 
and South Branches of the Saskatchewan, just above their junction, 



83 

on the 5th of August, and found the latter five degrees warmer 
than the former. As large rivers change temperature very slowly, 
this may be taken as the mean result of having flowed for ten or 
twelve days through a warmer climate than that of the northern 
branch. But the difference would necessarily be diminished as the 
rivers approached their junction in a common climate, and conse- 
quently must have been originally much greater. The south- 
western parts may, therefore, be taken to be 5 Q to 7° warmer in 
summer than the country traversed by the North Branch, or that 
around Fort Garry. This corresponds with what is reported by the 
Blackfeet Indians. 

Professor Hind found a considerable difference in favor of the 
lower part of the South Branch as to the ripening of wild fruit. A 
hundred and fifty miles further west, at Chesterfield House, though 
the elevation there is about two thousand feet above the sea, the 
mean annual temperature is stated as 39°, or nearly 5° warmer 
than that of Fort Garry. 

DEPTH OF SNOW. 

In considering the climate it is proper to notice that the snow 
does not fall so deep in this section of territory as it does in Cana- 
da, which is of considerable importance, as regards the feeding of 
cattle in winter and facility of travelling, and will be still more so 
in the use of railways, for which this country is, in other respects, 
so unusually well adapted. 

The ordinary greatest depth of snow in the Eed Eiver settle- 
ment is about eighteen inches, and people ride freely everywhere 
through it all winter. Eastward towards the thick wooded country 
the depth increases, but it decreases in the plains to the westward, 
though where there are wooded tracts it accumulates to a greater 
depth. 

It is an ordinary well-known fact that dealers in stock, residing 
in the Eed Eiver settlement, who purchase horses from the prairie 
Indians, for the purpose of selling them in the American markets, 
winter them at large, in droves of a hundred and upwards, in 
charge of herdsmen, in the prairies where there are clumps of wood, 
from ten to forty miles west of Fort Garry. The horses find abun- 
dant food there, under the shallow snow, to keep themselves in 
good condition. Their other cattle the settlers feed at home on hay, 
which is very abundant. 

This present winter of 1867, from the date of its commence- 
ment and the suddenness of transition from mild weather to hard 
frost, resembles a Eed Eiver winter. 

At the Touchwood Hills, west of the Upper Assiniboine, Pro- 
fessor Hind says that the onow falls two and a half feet deep in the 






84 




woods, and not unfrequently eighteen inches in the plains where 
aspen groves are numerous. He says, so rich and abundant is the 
vegetation here that horses remain in the open glades all winter, 
and always find plenty of forage to keep themselves in good con- 
dition. 

Speaking of the country from two hundred and fifty to four 
hundred and fifty miles westward, Dr. Hector says, the winter of 
1858-9 had been unusually severe, as far as the quantity of snow 
is concerned, and yet the average depth of snow, when undisturbed, 
as in the woods, was only about eight to twelve inches, throughout 
a large district between Battle Eiver and North Saskatchewan at 
Edmonton. Towards the Mountains, in a south-west direction, 
the quantity is still less ; but during the early part of April, after 
the snow had nearly disappeared from Edmonton, a series of storms 
from the North visited the neighborhood of Fort Pitt, so that in 
the middle of April there were from three to four feet of snow on 
the ground. 

The great quantity of snow at that time, and at that particular 
point, was no doubt as unusual as the severity of the season. 
Speaking of the whole region to the Eocky Mountains, and of 
what he calls the immense extent of winter pasturage that it 
affords, as being a most valuable feature, he states, as before quoted, 
that " it is only towards spring, in very severe winters, that cattle 
and horses cannot be left to feed in well chosen localities through- 
out this region of country." 

From these facts as to climate, it evidently appears that we 
have, in a very great part of this central prairie country, an open 
or summer season of seven months, the mean temperature of which 
is fully as warm as that of Toronto for the same period, with a 
winter season of five very cold months, but clear and dry — as cold 
as the northern parts of Minnesota — a winter fully colder than 
that of Quebec, but without its obstructively deep snow, or the 
drawback it presents in the difficulty of feeding cattle through it. 

Now, in a cold country like ours (where the frost of winter 
interrupts agricultural labor at any rate), if the seven open summer 
months be warm enough, it matters little to the profit of agricul- 
ture whether the cold of winter be a few degrees more or less, 
provided it does not increase the cost and difficulty of feeding 
cattle. But we see that in a great part of this section, that con- 
dition at least is highly favorable, and even in the remainder, owing 
to the great abundance of natural hay ground not requiring the labor 
of clearing usual with us, it is more favorable than in Canada gener- 
ally, but especially so to the poor settler, who has, with us, to clear 
off heavy woods, at much cost or labor, before he can raise hay for 
his cattle. 






85 






It is true that with increasing settlement and density of popu- 
lation, these most valuable winter pastures may cease to be used as 
such, but that will be only when they have become still more 
valuable for cultivation, and that condition cannot arise without 
the settlement of the country being accomplished, which above all 
things is the object desired. But even then it does not appear that 
the advantage of winter feeding, which the very shallow snow 
admits of, need be lost in the country towards the mountains, for 
there the cattle could feed on clover and turnips on the ground, as 
they now do on the natural herbage ; or the wild vetch, to which it 
owes its richness, might even be improved by careful cultivation. 

While considering the climate of this section of territory, we 
have to bear in mind that it is not on climate alone that the fitness 
of a country for the profitable prosecution of agriculture depends. 
Within certain limits, quality of soil and character of surface have 
even more to do with it. Abundant crops of coarse grains and hay 
are more profitable than scanty crops of wheat. But in the rich 
lands of this central prairie country, the farmer can get wheat crops 
far heavier than in these provinces. 

It is no exaggeration to say that there are vast tracts there, now 
vacant, where he could have wheat crops more than double the 
average returns of Lower Canada, and keep a far larger stock of 
cattle, with far less labor. 

The character of the surface is also to be taken into account. 
When we consider how much the use of machinery is in future 
to reduce the labor and increase the profit of agriculture, and the 
favorable nature of the soil and surface of this prairie country for 
its application, together with its great facility of internal communi- 
cation, without the heavy expense of opening roads that we have 
in Canada, and its inexhaustible supply of coal on navigable rivers, 
with its valuable metals and other minerals, we have every reason 
to believe that settlement, and the profitable prosecution of agricul- 
ture, will be carried northward, to an extent it would never attain 
in a rugged and less favorable country. 

CULTIVATED CROPS AND GREAT RETURNS OF WHEAT. 

Little can be said of cultivated crops in the section of territory 
we have designated as the Central Prairie Country, except in the 
Ked Biver settlement. 

As already stated, Sir John Bichardson has given the line of 
latitude 60° N., (the assumed northern boundary of this section,) as 
the limit of the economic culture of wheat, and says that at Fort 
Liard, on the Kiver of the Mountains in that latitude, barley and 
oats yield good crops, and potatoes are of an excellent quality, 






86 




and in favorable seasons wheat ripens well, and gives good returns, 
but that it does not ripen perfectly every year, owing to summer 
frosts. This is ten degrees, or nearly seven hundred miles, further 
north than the Red River Settlement ; failures of wheat crops from 
frost might be expected there, as we have them in some of the 
settlements of Canada. 

Sir John says further, that wheat grows freely on the banks of 
the Saskatchewan, excepting near Hudson's Bay, that is, beyond 
the limits of this section of territory ; and David Thomson, many 
years ago, the Astronomer of the Hudson's Bay Company, states in 
his manuscript journal that " wheat comes to perfection" even as 
far north-eastward as Cumberland House ; but from its position so 
far to the eastward, and the prevalence of marshy ground near it, the 
climate is much less favorable than further up the Saskatchewan. 

As might be expected from the richness of the soil, where set- 
tlement has taken place in this territory, on the Red River and the 
Assiniboine, the cultivation of wheat has been very successful, and 
the returns very great. 

Sir John Richardson, Capt. Blackiston, and our Canadian ex- 
plorers, and othe'rs, inform us that wheat, in these settlements, is 
sown early in May and reaped in the end of August, and the re- 
turns vary from thirty to forty fold, or bushels to the acre, as it is 
indifferently expressed. They inform us, that in some parts thirty 
bushels to the acre is an average crop of wheat, and that in others 
" forty bushels is not only common, but generally expected ;" and 
Professor Hind mentions a settler who had obtained fifty-six 
bushels of wheat to the acre, simply by judicious ploughing. 

If the average were thirty-two and a half, it would be double 
that of Upper Canada by the census of 1851, and Upper Canada is 
one of the best wheat-growing countries in the world. Even if a 
large deduction were made from them for error and exaggeration, 
as is generally necessary in such cases, the Red River returns would 
still far exceed those of Upper Canada. 

But this superiority is not without apparent causes in the 
richest of soils and the best of summers for the growth of wheat, 
which affect, also, the quality of it. The acknowledged superiority 
in quality of the wheat of Minnesota, adjoining, is attributed to the 
powerful midsummer heat common to this region. 

It has been already mentioned that the climate at Carleton 
House, on the North Branch of the Saskatchewan, though three 
degrees further north, is stated by the officers of the Imperial ex- 
ploring party, from careful thermometrical observation, to be at 
least equal to that of the Red River Settlement, and they and others 
agree in stating that the warmth of climate of the valley of the 
Saskatchewan, southward and westward from Carleton House, is still 
greater, till neutralized by elevation in approaching the Mountains. 







87 

It is proper to observe, that in the colder parts of this Central 
Prairie Country, where from elevation or extreme northerly posi- 
tion failures of crop from frost may occur, the deficiency may be 
more than balanced by the extraordinary returns, in all other years, 
which the richness of the soil may yield. 

To return to the Eed Eiver Settlement, the richness of the soil 
is equalled by its durability, crops of wheat for upwards of twenty 
years being obtained, from the same ground, nearly equal to the 
first. 

Indian corn is sometimes prevented from ripening on rich but 
moist prairie lands, which is attributed by Mr. Lane, of the Hud- 
son's Bay Company, to careless cultivation. On dry grounds it is 
said to be a sure crop. 

Professor Hind and others speak of melons growing luxuriantly 
and ripening in the open air, in great perfection, and also of the 
abundance, size and good quality of the potatoes as remarkable ; 
that beets, turnips, and all other root crops grow well and attain 
large dimensions ; and that all common garden vegetables cultivated 
in Canada are equalled, if not surpassed, by those raised in the set- 
tlements of the Eed Eiver and the Assiniboine. 

When we take into consideration the extreme richness of the 
soil and warmth of the summer, it will be apparent that it could 
not well be otherwise as to these productions. 

The beet may prove a very important one for the manufacture 
of sugar, which should be more profitable than the importation of 
it, so far inland, where the transport in, of it, and out of the pro- 
duce in payment for it, will be expensive. 

The cultivation of hemp and flax, which grow of an excellent 
quality, may be of considerable importance, especially the latter, 
for domestic use, as well as for exportation, on the introduction of 
machinery for the preparation of it, and the opening of any even 
moderately advantageous outlet for such products. Woollen, linen, 
leather, and other light goods, would be the most advantageous to 
export from a country situated so far inland. 



CHAPTEE XXII. 

COAL, PETROLEUM, AND BUILDING MATERIALS. 

In describing the great Central Prairie Country, or region gene- 
rally suitable for cultivation, in which prairie land is more or less 
prevalent, it has been noticed that wood lands more generally 






88 

prevail in the north half of it, while in the south half of it, on the 
waters of the Saskatchewan and the Eed River and their tribu- 
taries, the extent of prairie lands is very much greater than that 
of wood lands. The eastern parts of the latter, on the lakes 
Winnipeg, Manitobah and Winnipegoos, and on the Saskatchewan 
below its forks, and the broad parallel belt of highlands lying to the 
west of the two last named lakes, known as the Riding Mountains, 
Duck Mountain, Porcupine Hills, and Thunder Mountain, are 
described as densely and heavily wooded on the highlands, 
while the valleys present about an equal extent of prairie and 
wood lands; and it is said that the forests of this region are 
sufficient to supply the inhabitants who may occupy it and the 
adjoining country, with wood for all purposes, for generations to 
come. 

Towards the Rocky Mountains also, and on the skirts of them, 
on the head waters of the Saskatchewan, there is a broad belt 
of wooded country, where there is pine and other useful timber of 
a good growth, from which supplies of building timber may be 
brought down by the rivers, for the use of the prairie regions, on 
their lower courses, when the supply from the limited growth of 
wood there has become exhausted. 

When the same necessity arises, the prairie lands on the Assi- 
niboine may be supplied by its eastern tributaries, from the 
forests of the highlands mentioned, and the prairies of the Red 
River from the wood lands on its upper course, and when these fail, 
from the wooded country on the eastern tributaries of Lake Win- 
nipeg. 

The River Winnipeg, which unwaters a wooded region probably 
little inferior to the valley of the Ottawa in area, has timber 
enough of a useful description to form the staple of an extensive 
lumber trade, for the supply of the prairie country to the west- 
ward. 

The timber from it will be much smaller, and inferior in kind 
as well as quality to that from the Ottawa. Considerable quantities 
of red and white pine are said by our explorers to be found on some 
of its waters, though of an inferior size. 

The greater size of wood, though much in its favor in foreign 
markets, is really of little importance for home use ; and poplar 
and spruce yield very useful lumber, and are much to be valued in 
the absence of pine timber. 

In the eastern or nearer part of the prairie region lying on the 
Assiniboine and its tributaries, and on the head waters of lesser 
western tributaries of Lake Winnipeg, there seems to be a fair pro- 
portion of woods, and advancing northward they predominate. 
Speaking of this region, Mr. Dawson says : " The streams that flow 







89 

through the prairie are bordered more or kss with forests in which 
oak and elm of a fair size are to be met with, although not in 
great quantities ; in the wooded section, of which, however, less 
is known, poplar predominates; but on the borders of the lakes and 
streams, larch, spruce, birch and oak are to be found of a size and 
quality available for economic purposes." Mr. Dawson is unques- 
tionably a good judge of the subject, from his extensive, previous 
experience in the lumber trade. 

Professor Hind speaks of forests in the valley of the Assini- 
boine, one of which he describes as four miles in width and thirty 
miles in length, wooded with oak, elm, ash, maple, poplar and 
aspen, and speaks of the flats and hill-sides of its valley elsewhere 
being clothed with fine forests, which he describes as extending 
also from thirty to seventy miles up its western tributaries ; and at 
intervals beyond, on the Qu'appelle, he says, good timber is found, 
as far as the Mission. 

In prairie lands, the abundant supply of timber, which entirely 
wooded countries afford, does not exist ; and in the absence of pine, 
poplar and spruce have to be used for building purposes. They 
are both inferior to pine in value ; but in a great part of Lower 
Canada spruce only is to be had, and much of it is exported as 
sawn lumber to Europe. Poplar is undervalued through pre- 
judice in a great degree. Of all the deciduous trees it is one of 
the best suited to take the place of pine in flooring and finishing 
houses : and forbuilding the walls of dwellings it is very durable. 
I have seen a house built of poplar logs, that stood upwards of 
a hundred years, perfectly sound to the foundation, when cut 
open. It may not accord with present ideas to say so, but before; 
the pine of the Ottawa becomes exhausted our extensive forests 
of poplar will be valued for lumbering purposes and brought 
into use. 

In our interior territories spruce timber, on account of its light- 
ness, its straightness and its strength, will take the place of pine,. 
for engineering purposes ; and birch, on account of the fineness of 
its grain and its strength, will be serviceable for furniture and fine 
wood- work, especially in the northern regions, where oak and 
maple are not to be found. 

The timber of the interior is of a smaller growth than with us, 
probably owing to the greater dryness of the summer and cold in 
winter; it is therefore probably stronger and perhaps more durable. 
In these respects woods of the same kind differ much with the 
soil and climate. The oak of the Ottawa averages only half the 
size of that of the western parts of Upper Canada, but is far 
superior to it in strength ; and the timber that grows in parts of 
Canada near the sea is more durable than timber, of the same 






90 




kind, of the interior. In bridge building I have found it to last 
nearly twice as long. "We have no data on which to determine the 
comparative durability and integral strength of the timber of our 
interior territory for engineering purposes. 

Great size gives squared timber an increased value in European 
markets, but the small dimension into which our large Ottawa 
timber is invariably cut, in preparing sawn lumber for home use 
and exportation, shows that great size is of no importance gene- 
rally for home use, excepting for the greater quantity it gives. 

White spruce is harder to saw and work up than pine, and with 
us it is less durable when exposed, but it is stronger, and its length 
and straightness make it very suitable for building timbers. 

According to Sir John Kichardson, oak, ash, white pine and 
pitch pine, are not to be found north of the valley of the Saskat- 
chewan, and are not prominent there, and white spruce continues 
to be the predominant tree alike on rich and poor soil. Though 
of a small growth near the Arctic Sea, it was found in some in- 
stances, in sheltered positions, to attain the size of from three to 
five feet in girth, even there. Balsam, poplar and aspen, skirt the 
streams, and white birch is found chiefly, though not exclusively, in 
rocky districts. It attains a fair size as far north as latitude 65° N. 

From the foregoing, and the descriptions in detail given of the 
different parts of the south half of the central prairie country, it 
will be seen, that for prairie land, the supply of wood, distributed 
through it, such as it is, seems sufficient for the supply of settle- 
ments in it for a long time to come, if carefully used. As for the 
north half of it, lying beyond the Saskatchewan and the line of 
the strong woods, the abundance of the supply of timber in it is 
not questioned. 

But in view of the time when the forests and scattered woods, 
especially of the south half of this central prairie country, may 
become inadequate for the supplying of fuel for an increasing popu- 
lation, the great deposits of lignite coal in the western and northern 
parts of this territory are of the greatest importance. 

Nor is the supply of peat fuel that may be obtained, by im- 
proved methods of preparation, from the bogs in the eastern parts 
of it, in and near the Red Kiver Settlement, unworthy of considera- 
tion. As it has already become more economical to use it than 
wood as fuel, in the vicinity of Montreal, it is natural to think that 
it might before long become advantageous to use it as fuel in 
prairie countries. 

In his report upon the Grand Trunk Railway, Capt. Tyler, R E., 
says that peat fuel can now be furnished on the cars of the com- 
pany at S3 20 a ton, which is more serviceable than a -cord of wood 
for use in locomotive engines ; that it can be more conveniently 







91 



stored and used than wood, and computes that the company will 
save £40,000 a year by using it. It is to be borne in mind that 
this is in Canada, possessing the boasted advantage over prairie 
countries of abundance of wood ; and not by a manufacturing 
establishment located in a city and obliged to pay the high prices 
current there, but by a company owning a railway traversing nearly 
the whole of Canada proper, enabling it to supply itself, wherever 
it could do so with most advantage, and the cost of wood fuel to 
them must necessarily be not the price of it in towns and cities, 
but the average cost of it in the country places along the line. 
Apart from the shallow but extensive muskegs or marshes, the 
deeper bogs, near the Eed Eiver Settlement, would seem to present 
the vegetable matter necessary for the manufacture of this fuel. 

LOCALITIES WHERE LIGNITE AND BITUMEN HAVE BEEN 
OBSERVED. 

Proceeding northward from the United States boundary, (lat. 
49° N.,) brown coal is shown by Dr. Hector's geological section at 
La Roche Percee, Coteau du Prairie, about long. 103° W. lat. 49° 
30' N". on the Souris or Mouse Paver, a tributary of the Assini- 
boine ; and in that direction a bed two feet thick was seen by a 
Mr. Pratt. Brown coal is also shown by Dr. Hector's section, in 
the Hand Hills. 

On the Eed Deer branch of the South Saskatchewan, which it 
enters a hundred and thirty miles above the Elbow, an extensive 
deposit of coal is noted by Dr. Hector at a hundred and seventy 
miles from its mouth, and "also at a hundred miles further up. 
Capt. Blackiston says it is there in beds so close, that of twenty 
feet of strata exposed, twelve feet were of coal. It is also noted on 
the Battle Eiver adjacent, to the northward, at two hundred and 
fifty miles above its mouth. The Battle Eiver enters .the North 
Saskatchewan a hundred and seventy miles above the forks of 
the latter and the South Branch. 

On the North Saskatchewan Capt. Blackiston describes coal as 
prevailing, with little interruption, in beds two and two and a half 
feet thick, from a little below Edmonton, upwards, for two hundred 
miles. 

Passing northward to the next stream, the Pembina, a fine navi- 
gable tributary of the Arthabasca, Dr. Hector found, where he 
crossed it, a bed of lignite coal exposed, eight feet thick. On the 
Arthabasca, above their junction, he says coal appears in the banks, 
but not so much as on the Saskatchewan. 

The lower course of the Arthabasca is described by Thomson, 
in his manuscript journal of the year 1799, as abounding in bitu- 
men, presenting strata in parts six to twelve feet thick. Sir John 






92 



Richardson speaks of deposits of sand on it a hundred feet thick, 
charged with slaggy mineral pitch. As already mentioned, in the 
description of the Arthabasca, lie says that at Pierre au Calumet, 
aud a few miles further down the river, the whole country, for 
many miles, is so full of bitumen, that if you dig a pit a few feet 
below the surface it flows readily into it ; and that below Riviere 
Rouge there is a copious spring of mineral pitch (fluid bitumen or 
petroleum) that issues from a crevice in a cliff composed of sand 
and bitumen. 

Sir Alexander McKenzie mentions that twenty-four miles below 
the forks of the Arthabasca there are some fountains of bitumen in 
a fluid state, in which a pole of twenty feet may be inserted with- 
out resistance. It was used along with gum from the spruce and 
fir for gumming canoes. 

Such abundant deposits of petroleum, for the supply of coal oil 
for the use of these interior countries, and for other economic uses, 
are of much importance, and enhance the value of this territory. 

Below the mouth of Clear Water River, Sir John Richardson 
notes lignite coal as appearing, in pretty thick layers, in the bank 
of the Arthabasca. 

Proceeding to the next stream to the northward, the Peace 
River, Sir Alexander McKenzie found coal on it at Edge Coal 
Creek, and Chief Factor Stewart informed Sir John Richardson 
that there were beds of coal on fire on Smoky River, a Southern 
affluent, which joins the Peace River opposite Dunvegan, a hun- 
dred and fifty miles further south, and that there were beds of coal 
on Lesser Slave Lake, a northern tributary of the Upper Artha- 
basca. As these points are about two hundred miles west from 
the lower course of the Arthabasca, that, at least, may be taken as 
the breadth of country in which coal may be found. 

Sir Alexander McKenzie mentions that there is bitumen on the 
shore of Great Slave Lake, near its discharge ; and, as already men- 
tioned, he found coal beds on fire on the banks of the McKenzie. 
Sir John Richardson says, that where the Bear Lake River joins it, 
there is a tertiary coal deposit of considerable extent, and that the 
Garry Islands, lying off the mouth of the McKenzie, contain beds 
of a tertiary coal that takes fire spontaneously. 

From the description given by Sir John Richardson and others, 
there is much variety in the character, quality and condition of 
lignite. Some is of very recent formation or yet being formed, like 
that of the vast deposits of drift wood in the conical hills at the 
mouth of the McKenzie. In some of the beds of lignite the forms 
of the trunks of trees are preserved. In others, composed of glance 
coal, the wood-like structure is lost, and pieces taken from the beds 
split into small rhomboidal fragments, no longer presenting the 



93 

grain or layers of wood. Specimens of pitch coal are spoken of by- 
Sir John Eichardson as resembling Spanish liquorice, and also of 
slaty coal from Edmonton on the Saskatchewan, like that gathered 
from the shale cliffs of the Arthabasca. This coal of Edmonton, 
Captain Blackiston says, is preferred to charcoal for smith's work, 
though it is said to require rather a strong draft, an objection that 
would not seem to lie against the lignites, subject to spontaneous 
combustion. In some cases the lignites were found heavily charged 
with bitumen, while others are much silicified. 

The following table, extracted from a good work on metallurgy, 
shows the difference in calorific value of several kinds of European 
lignite and of varieties of peat, compared with some descriptions of 
wood and Newcastle coals. 

It is proper to notice that the lignite coal of the Nanaimo mines 
of Vancouver's Island is stated by Dr. Hector to be only ten per 
cent, inferior to the true coal of the carboniferous epoch. It would 
seem, therefore, to be much superior to the European lignites given 
in this table, which, therefore, does not show the highest value of 
lignite. By the rates in the table, we might safely estimate the 
lignites of our interior territories as equal in heating power to five- 
sevenths of the same weight of good Newcastle coal 









94 



TABLE OF THE CALORIFIC VALUES OF VARIOUS KINDS OF FUEL. 



NAME AND LOCALITY. 



& 



Varieties of Peat. averages. 
Peat from Troyes 

" Ham, Dep. de la Somme 

" Bassy, Dep. de la Marne 

' ' Konigsbrunn Wurtemberg 

" Framont, Dep. des Voges 

From Allan in Ireland, Upper 

Lower 

Brown Coal, Lignite. averages 

Saint Martin de Vaud (Canton de Vaud)... 

Minerme, Dep. de l'Aude 

Faveau 

Koep Fuarch, Lake of Zurich 

Val, Dep. de la Sarthe 

Common German 

Sinter Coals. averages 

( Newcastle Hartley 

Newcastle } Can's Hartley 

Coals S Hedley's Hartley 

( Steamboat Wallsend 

Wood. averages 

Oak Wood 

Ash " 

Sycamore Wood 

Beech " 

Elm " 

Poplar " ..... 






16.52 

8. 

12. 3 

13. 

14. 3 

15. 4 
27. 7 
25. 

20.79 
22. 6 
22. 8 
21. 
20. 7 
19.25 
18.40 

30.48 
31.86 
30.90 
30.36 

28.80 

13.63 
12.50 
14.96 
13.10 
13.70 
14.50 
13.04 



o > & 
P-l PR 






Co* 



37.40 

18. 1 

27. 9 

29. 2 

32. 4 

34. 9 

62. 7 

56. 6 

47.10 
51.20 
51.60 
47.60 
46.90 
43.60 
41.70 

68.88 
72.00 
69.83 
68.61 
65.08 

30.57 
28.30 
32.07 
29.70 
31.00 
32.84 
29.54 



Berthier. 



Griffiths. 



Berthier. 



I Philips. 



Berthier. 
Winkler. 
Bertheir. 

a 

Winkler. 







95 



CHAPTER XXIII. 

INDUCEMENTS OFFERED BY PRAIRIE LANDS TO SETTLERS. 

The chief peculiar advantage of our Central Prarie Country as 
a field for settlement, lies in the combination it offers of prairie 
and wood lands ; the full advantage of which can be appreciated 
only by those who have had practical experience of the great and 
continued labour required to clear off and cultivate a new farm, 
in a wooded country, and the obstruction it presents to the making 
of the roads necessary for the formation of new settlements. 

Much is said of the advantage of the superior supply of wood 
for fuel and fencing, afforded by wooded countries ; but these are 
indefinitely over-estimated by many in comparing the facilities 
for settlement offered by prairie lands and wooded countries 
respectively. Such a comparison can be best approximated by 
reducing the matter to figures as far as possible. 

For the benefit, of those who are not aquainted with the labour 
of making a farm in the backwoods, I may go into particulars. 

The first and most obvious cause of expense, in money or 
labour, is the necessity of clearing off the wood before the land, 
can be even imperfectly cultivated, the average cost of which is 
three pounds five shillings an acre; but as the stumps still remain, 
an outlay of twenty-five shillings an acre may be set down as to 
be incurred afterwards in getting rid of them. Where the stumps 
are of pine or the land stony, the cost will be much greater. 

In general, pine stumps, if removed at all, will cost at least 
five shillings a piece, and some will cost twenty-five shillings. 

We have here as one item, at least four ponnds ten shillings an 
acre, of expense, to be incurred, on account of the wood, before 
the land can be brought thoroughly under the plough. This is 
the cost to those who can pay for the labour of skilled backwoods- 
men, accustomed to the use of the axe, who can do twice as much 
of that kind of work as the emigrants from Europe, even though 
accustomed to other kinds of hard labour. 

To the farm labourer from Great Britain, whose time and 
industry, if applied to the cultivation of prairie land, would be 
even more valuable than that of the backwoodsman, the cost of 
clearing wood land, in money's worth of his labour, will be twice 
as much. If he be very young he may learn the use of the axe 
perfectly; if not, he will never learn to use it so as to be able to 
do as much work with it as the native backwoodsman. 

As by far the greater part of the emigrants who settle in the 
woods have to clear their farms by their own unskilled labour,. 







96 

admitting even that they become gradually more proficient, the 
cost to them in their own labour, of clearing their farms and 
removing the stumps, may, on a low estimate, be set down at five 
pounds ten shillings an acre. 

I do not here speak of the value which their labour in clearing 
would command. No one would give them such a price for it. 
I am speaking of the value of the labour unavoidably lost by them 
on account of the woods. 

Here we have, then, to a family clearing a farm of a hundred 
acres in ten or fifteen years, a loss of five hundred and fifty pounds 
on account of the woods. 

The settler expends all this, and ten or fifteen years of the 
best of his life, in toilsome struggles to convert his farm into such 
proportions of open and wooded land as the settler on the partly 
wooded prairie lands finds his when first he goes to it. 

The latter can adopt a regular system of cultivation ten years 
oner than the other. He can put as much land under the plough, 
and reap the fruit of it, soon after commencing, as the former can 
do after ten or fifteen years of crushing toil in clearing land, which 
necessarily consumes much time which he would gladly devote to 
more extensive cultivation and raising larger crops, were the woods 
not an obstruction to his doing so. 

Besides this relief from heavy toil and time lost in clearing, 
there is another advantage of prairie land that would operate 
strongly in the settler's favor, the full value of which can only be 
appreciated by a man who has made a beginning in the unbroken 
forest, — an advantage that would tell immediately to the personal 
comfort and benefit of the settler and his family — that is, the in- 
finite abundance of the rich grass for summer and winter food of 
cattle, with which he would be surrounded. 

The new settler on prairie land can keep as many cows, for the 
supply of his family with milk and butter and cheese, as it may 
suit his means to purchase, from the first day of his settlement; for 
his pasture and meadows are already in abundance before him, and 
in favourable places the cattle can even find the chief part of their 
winter food for themselves. 

But it may be said all this is far from market, and no money can 
be made there. That is true of all remote territories, newly opened 
for settlement, like the United States territory of Nebraska and the 
remote parts of Minnesota, to which we assuredly know that settle- 
ment will flow nevertheless, and create its own outlets. We have 
also to remember that of the myriads of the industrious poor and 
unemployed it is evidently the destiny of few only to make money. 
The million want independence and abundance of food and cloth- 
ing ; and, to obtain them easily is much to them ; all which, this ter- 



97 

ritory, even in the meantime offers them, with much less toil than 
they can be had in the backwoods of Canada. 

It is not surprising, therefore, that so many European emigrants 
pass through Canada to seek the prairie lands of the United States. 
Even old and successful settlers in Canada have found it much to 
their advantage to do so. 

But there is another heavy charge against settlement in wooded 
countries. That is, the obstruction our dense forests present to the 
spread of settlement, and the expense that has to be incurred in 
making roads through them. It takes an expenditure of more than 
a hundred pounds a mile to make a road through the woods as 
passable as the natural surface of the prairie, by the innumerable 
routes it offers ; and when a road through our forests is made, it 
gives access only to the land immediately on the sides of it. When 
the settlers strike from it to reach the lands in the back conces- 
sions the obstacle is again encountered, and the expense of opening 
the roads commences anew. 

It is a moderate calculation to say that for every square mile of 
forest country settled, an expense in money or labour of £100 has 
to be incurred ultimately in making roads, or, what is worse, the 
settlers have to endure in hardship and difficulty of communica- 
tion a much greater loss from the want of them. 

Here again the practical man only can duly appreciate the mag- 
nitude of the obstacle and the expense it entails ; I speak from 
experience, having superintended the making of upwards of three 
hundred and fifty miles of roads through wooded countries in 
Canada, within the last thirty-seven years. 

The facts mentioned may assist in showing more definitely the 
loss, or cost of the obstruction, which the forests, in wooded coun- 
tries, entail upon the settler. They will help to explain why many 
of our own people as well as European emigrants prefer going to 
the prairie lands of the West to settling in our wooded country, 
especially since the western peninsula of Upper Canada has been 
all taken up, and we are obliged to fall back on rugged and partially 
arable territories, inferior in climate, and generally so in soil. 

Our forest lands have the advantage in the more abundant sup- 
ply of timber for fencing and fuel, to a certain degree, over the 
mixed prairie and wood lands ; but it is to be borne in mind that 
great districts of our Central Prairie Country have, in their im- 
mense beds of lignite coal, a supply of fuel, for ever, which places 
them in a far better position than some of the old settlements of 
Canada, where wood for fuel is already deficient, and is rapidly be- 
coming more so. 



98 
CHAPTER XXIV. 

WHY WE REQUIRE THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORIES. 

Apart from the general reasons which make the acquisition of 
valuable territory desirable, there are some of a special nature 
which render the acquisition of this North- West Territory, or the 
great part of it suitable for settlement, of great importance to us. 

We are in present need of it as a field for settlement ; because 
our best and most favorably situated lands in Canada are now all 
surveyed and disposed of ; and we have no vacant settling regions 
left, fit to attract and receive immigration on a large scale, as we 
formerley had. We require it because there our young men, and 
immigrants from Europe, may find the rich prairie lands, ready 
for cultivation, which they have now to seek in a foreign country. 

The acquisition of it for that purpose is desirable, also, as a 
means of preserving our chief staple of trade — our timber, by 
relieving us from the necessity of converting our most valuable 
timber forests into comparatively worthless fields, through want 
of a sufficiency of better lands to place our settlers upon. 

The acquisition of it is very desirable in order that the settle- 
ment of it, and the development of its resources, in connexion 
with the present Provinces of the Dominion, may give a wider 
market and a greater demand for our manufactures, and extension 
to our commerce in the manufactures of Great Britain, and in the 
products of her Colonies and of other countries; and give in- 
creased employment to our sea-going shipping and internal car- 
rying trade, and to our canals existing and to be made. We 
want it that the Maritime Provinces of the East may prosper By 
the trade of the West, 

We want all the strength its future population and trade can 
give in addition to all that which the extension of settlement in 
our remaining vacant lands, and the development of their 
resources, may afford us, to render it possible for us to maintain 
that degree of self-sustaining independence or future nationality 
which the Mother Country contemplates. 

To see our way to part of these conclusions it will be necessary 
for us briefly to consider the character of the chief regions of 
country that we now have left for the reception of settlers, and 
their comparative value. It will also be necessary to consider in a 
general way the value of the lumber trade to the Provinces. 

As regards the commercial and manufacturing advantages, in 
which the Maritime Provinces may be largely interested, it would 
seem only to be necessary to look to the United States adjoining 



& 



99 

us, and to consider how much the settlement of their western 
states and territories has contributed to the development of the 
manufactures of New England and the commerce of New York * 
As the people of the Maritime Provinces can build vessels so 
very much cheaper than the American ship builders can afford to 
do, and can also undoubtedly compete advantageously in navi- 
gating them, they are evidently in a position to reap Wealth from 
the development of the agricultural regions of the West, from the 
large share they will command of the carrying trade and the 
commerce of these regions. 

Their interest therefore is concerned in the development of 
the resources of these territories, and in every improvement that 
will tend to draw the trade of them down the St. Lawrence in- 
stead of to American ports, where Canadian shipping would 
compete for the freight of it with less advantage. 



CHAPTER XXV. 

OUR VACANT TERRITORIES AND SETTLING REGIONS IN CANADA 

CONSIDERED. 

About forty years ago, when the population of Upper Canada 
was but one-tenth of what it now is, the western half of that 
Province, between the Great Lakes, presented an almost unbroken 
field for settlement, of wheat-growing land of the best quality,, 
comparatively even, and arable throughout as a garden. 

The stream of immigration flowed strongly to it for many 
years. Little or no selection was necessary. There was good 
land in abundance everywhere for all comers. The settlers 
prospered, and Upper Canada was a favorite colony for the desti- 
nation of immigrants from Great Britain, including what is called 
the better class, with considerable capital. Even the high prices 
at which lands were sold tended to ensure a greater proportion of 
the latter. 

This lasted till all the vacant public lands of the western penin- 
sula and other parts of Upper Canada, south of the Laurentian 
formation, were surveyed and sold, or very nearly so. 

At the same time, after partially successful attemps to attract 
immigration into the more favorable of the townships of Lower 
Canada, the French Canadian population, straitened for room in 
their old seigniories, and having exhausted much of the rich lands 

* I here quote, as most appropriate, the expressions of an Honorable Senator 
of New Brunswick. 



100 

of the great plain country of the St. Lawrence, by a bad system 
of farming and by over cropping, into which the original richness 
of their lands had betrayed them, wisely turned their attention to 
these townships, which they have since been rapidly occupying. 

Having no other of a better quality, or more suitable to open for 
the expansion of settlement, it became necessary to turn to the 
inferior lands of the Huron and Ottawa Territory, which are in a 
region of Laurentian formation, at the outline of which settlement 
had long before, as it were instinctively, stopped. 

Of these lands, the best parts will not bear comparison with the 
peninsula of Canada West or the older settlements of that Pro- 
vince, nor with the rich alluvial lands of the St. Lawrence and its 
tributaries on which the old seigneurial settlements of Lower 
Canada were formed ; a proportion of them, unequally prevalent, of 
about three-quarters on an average of the whole, or one-half in the 
better regions, is rocky and unarable, or poor sandy land unfit for 
profitable cultivation. 

Notwithstanding the opening of several colonization roads to 
give access to them, the powerful efforts of Government to direct 
settlers to them by agencies to Europe and other means, and the 
far more powerful inducement presented in the very high prices 
given, in that territory, by lumberers, for farm produce, these lands 
have failed to attract immigration in any considerable degree, 
especially of the class of settlers possessing capital. 

As we have now nothing better to offer, Canada does not attract 
immigrants from Great Britain, as formerly, nor retain those from 
other European countries arriving at her ports. Nor will she ever 
do so till she has again abundance of the best lands to give them ; 
not scattered through a rough and rather forbidding country, of 
Laurentian formation, but in unbroken continuity or vast tracts, 
which can only be obtained in the territory we claim. 

Elsewhere, in Canada, even including the Maritime Provinces, 
it is vain to look for any field for settlement at all approaching in 
extent and value that which Canada West presented in its infancy 
as a province ; incomparably less, therefore, do we possess any such 
field for expansion as is required to meet our greatly increased 
native demand, or to admit of that increase by immigration so 
essential to our prosperity and security in the important and 
responsible national position in which Federation has placed us. 

THE OTTAWA COUNTRY AND HURON AND OTTAWA TERRITORY. 

The valley of the River Ottawa, and the country lying between 
it and the Georgian Bay or Lake Huron, form together the largest 
and best field for settlement remaining in Canada. 



101 

The valley of the Eiver Ottawa is reputed to have an area of 
eighty thousand superficial miles, but it may prove to be scarcely 
seventy-seven thousand. 

The area of the country lying between the sources of the 
western tributaries of the Ottawa and the Georgian Bay is about 
nine thousand square miles. 

It is of the same Laurentian formation, and being similar in 
character generally to the adjoining part of the Ottawa country, 
may be classed with it — making together probably an area of about 
eighty-six thousand superficial miles ; of which the part lying 
between the old townships, on the Ottawa, and the Georgian Bay 
is called the Huron and Ottawa Territory. 

The uncertainty as to the extent of the valley of the Ottawa 
is owing to that river not having been, till now, surveyed beyond 
four hundred and thirty miles from its mouth ; that is, to the head 
of Lake Temiscaming. When the surveys of its upper course, at 
present in progress, are completed, its entire length may prove to 
be about eight hundred miles. 

Eighty-six thousand superficial miles is a great extent of country 
— but unfortunately the greater part of it is ground unfit for culti- 
vation, which, in proportion to its prevalence in a greater or less 
degree, obstructs the settlement of the remainder. 

The Eiver Ottawa from its tributary, the Bonneehere, down to 
its mouth, at the foot of the Island of Montreal, a distance of a 
hundred and eighty miles by its course, — flows through the northern 
margin of a plain country of Silurian formation, of limestone and 
calciferous rocks. These with Potsdam sandstone extend with an 
irregular outline from two to ten miles west of the Brockville and 
Ottawa Bailroad. This Silurian plain includes about seven thou- 
sand square miles of the country watered by the Ottawa and its 
tributaries. It is generally good arable land, much of it equal to 
the best in the Provinces. It is all organized into old settled 
seigniories, (including those north of Montreal,) and old townships, 
in which there are no vacant Crown Lands of any considerable 
extent remaining. 

The remainder of the valley of the Ottawa, with little exception, 
together with the country between it and Lake Huron, is of the 
Laurentian formation. If the assumed extent of the Ottawa country 
be correct, their joint area will be about seventy-nine thousand 
square miles, apart from the Silurian tract already mentioned. 

Of this area about one-sixth part has been surveyed into town- 
ships. A further, and considerably larger portion, has been more 
or less surveyed or explored, and partially occupied as timber loca- 
tions. With the exception of surveys just completed on the 
Montreal Eiver and the Upper Ottawa, but little is known of the 



102 

interior of the remainder, or about one-half of the entire area, even 
by the agents of the Hudson's Bay Company ; and that little is 
unfavorable. 

From the returns of surveys made of townships and timber 
berths, and of the courses of rivers, and from what is reported of 
the unsurveyed parts by the few who have traversed them/ it 
would be unsafe to estimate, at the utmost, more than an average 
of one quarter of the whole area of this Laurentian country as 
arable land, fit for cultivation. 

It is unequally distributed, in small spots, veins and larger 
blocks — sometimes in tracts of considerable extent. In some parts 
the proportion of arable land of a good quality may be one-half, 
and in less favorable regions, not one-twentieth part, and that in 
spots too small to be available. 

The other three-fourths of the entire area consist of rugged and 
unarable or poor sandy land, and worthless swamps. 

Of these three-fourths, a considerable proportion may, and no 
doubt will, ultimately be occupied and brought under cultivation, 
when the pressure of population and scarcity of land cause such 
an increase in its value, as to render it profitable to incur the 
expense of removing stones from ground that is now quite unar- 
able. 

Such lands are in part occupied now, under what is called 
hoe and harrow cultivation, where the demand of the lumber 
trade gives very high prices for produce, or where poor settlers 
are led to take them, from the good first crops to be had from a 
rich surface soil, to be afterwards abandoned from being unarable. 

It is scarcely necessary to say that it would be heartless iniquity 
to induce settlers, in search of permanent homesteads, to sink their 
labor on such lands, when better can be had. 

On the other hand, much may be said in favor of the proportion 
of good arable land mentioned as occurring in the Laurentian 
Country of the Ottawa, and Huron and Ottawa Territory. 

Xotwithstancling the repulsive character of the gneiss ridges, 
stony swamps, and coarse sandy ground, with which it is more or 
less associated, and the too frequent presence of boulders, a great 
part of it has a rich warm loamy soil, though frequently light and 
sandy, or rather stony, and often uneven. Some of it is equal to 
the best lands in the Eastern Townships, with a better climate, — 
though inferior in quality and in character of surface to the rich 
even lands of the western part of the Province. Over a great 
extent of it durable clay loam or rich alluvial flats are of rare occur- 
rence. 

The largest and most favorable tract of country to which this 
description would generally apply, is in the heart of the Huron 



103 

and Ottawa Territory, on the head waters of the western tributaries 
of the Ottawa and rivers falling into Lake Huron and Lake Nip- 
pissing. 

It embraces an area of about seven thousand square miles. By 
the returns of surveys about one-half of it, irregularly distributed, 
is good land fit for settlement. A belt of inferior rocky country 
intervenes between it and Lake Huron, about thirty -miles in 
breadth, and a band of rugged bad land, about twenty miles in 
breadth, lying along the height of land dividing the basin of the 
Ottawa from that of the St. Lawrence, separates it from the old 
townships in front of it. To the eastward of it lie the more 
thickly pine timbered lumbering regions of the Ottawa. Hard 
wood is its predominent timber. Like all countries of primitive or 
azoic formation, it is thickly interspersed with lakes abounding in 
fish, and presenting many desirable positions of great beauty and 
fertility. 

The Gatineau, the chief tributary of the Ottawa, drains nearly 
ten thousand miles, with a course of about four hundred. There 
is a good deal of rich alluvial land, but already occupied, along 
its banks, and also in the narrow valleys of its lower tributaries. 
Lofty precipitous hills of gneiss and crystalline limestone overhang 
its east bank for nearly a hundred miles up. Crystalline limestone 
abounds a hundred miles further up, to, and sixty miles up its 
eastern tributary, the Piscatong. The romantic character of the 
lower valley of the Gatineau is very much against its agricultural 
capacity ; and though there is much land fit for cultivation in so 
considerable an extent even of rugged hilly country — as more than 
the upper half of the valley is in a very unfavorable sterile region — 
it is probable the arable land fit for cultivation on the Gatineau 
will, by our present standard of fitness, be considerably less than a 
quarter of the area it unwaters. 

On the other large northern tributaries of the Ottawa, it would 
be unsafe to estimate that a greater proportion of arable land, fit 
for settlement, will be found, than on the Gatineau. If the propor- 
tion of such land be less on the northern tributaries of the Ottawa 
than in the Huron and Ottawa territory, rich alluvial ground and 
deep clay loam may, as on the Gatineau, be more frequently 
found. 

Commencing gradually, about a hundred and forty miles up the 
Gatineau, a change occurs in the character of the country and its 
forests. Poplar, fir, birch and pitch pine, become the prevalent 
woods ; white pines become small and scarce, and, at two hundred 
and nine miles from the mouth of tbe Gatineau, cease to be found. 
Rugged hills of gneiss, occasionally bare and precipitous, with a 
soil of sand or poor sandy loam in the flats and valleys, in parts 






104 

burned to utter barrenness, are the prevalent characteristics of 
the upper half of the valley of the Gatineau, as far as it has been 
explored. This description of country, interspersed with innu- 
merable lakes, extends over the upper courses of the other large 
northern tributaries of the Ottawa generally. 

Such also, with little exception, as far as yet known, is the 
character of the countiy and its forests in the upper valley of the 
main Ottawa, for about three hundred miles of its course 
above Lake Temiscaming, and extending north-eastwardly from it.* 
But by far the greater part of it is quite unknown. 

It is varied by the circumstance that, in part of this upper 
course of the Ottawa, the elevation between its waters and those 
of Hudson's Bay is very slight, and the clay land of Lake Abbi- 
tibbi overlaps the northern tributaries of the Ottawa, and ap- 
proaches it through their valleys ; but the rock formation it over- 
lies is Laurentian, not Silurian, as shown by the ridges of gneiss 
prevailing throughout, on the routes traversed. 

This clay, which here presents itself, is white and hard, but very 
soluble, and destitute of any grit, and seemingly poor and hard to 
cultivate. But white clay soil admits of much improvement. A 
gentleman of my acquaintance in Pembroke, on the Upper Ottawa, 
obtained thirty bushels of wheat to the acre, from a piece of white 
clay ground, by proper cultivation and manuring. 

This clay occurs on the River Blanche, a northern tributary of 
Lake Temiscaming. On the lower course of that river there is 
much very rich alluvial land, but it seems to be occasionally 
flooded. 

A blue clay soil extends for fifty miles along the banks of the 
Montreal River (a large western tributary of that Lake), occupying 
its immediate valley, which is from one mile to four miles in width. 
Some blue clay soils in Lower Canada have been cropped for up- 
wards of sixty years, without manure, owing to their durable fer- 
tility. The upper course of the Montreal River is in a poor, rough 
country, unfit for settlement (as ascertained by recent surveys), 
which extends, with increasing ruggedness, through to the vicinity 
of Michipicoten, on Lake Superior. 

At the upper end of Lake Temiscaming on both sides, and in the 
interior between the south end of that lake and Lake Nipissmg, 
and north of the latter, there are considerable tracts of land like 
the better part of the Huron and Ottawa territory. There is a fine 

* I am of opinion that a larger proportion than is now estimated of the plain 
country, on the upper course of the Ottawa, north of £he Laurentian highlands, will 
prove to be arable lands, and much of it of a clay soil ; and that though remote and 
valueless now, it will ultimately become occupied ; but I have not yet sufficient data 
to enable me to speak decidedly. 






105 



tract in the interior of the north side, extending westward from the- 
River du Moine, in the Province of Quebec. 

There are scattering lands of a middling quality on Black River, 
and less on the River Coulogne. The valley of the Du Lievre, a 
northern tributary of three hundred miles in length, below the 
Gatineau, is less favorable for settlement than that of the latter 
river. Further down on the north side, the lower part of the valley 
of the River Rouge is more favorable, and the country between it 
and the River Petite Nation above it is generally fit for settlement, 
back to the distance of fifty or sixty miles from the Ottawa, having 
much good, though light loamy soil, well suited for cultivation. 
This tract is most advantageously situated to meet the wants of the 
surplus population of Vaudreuil, which has no vacant lands in rear 
of it. 

It may be necessary to explain, in using the expression " land 
fit for settlement," I do not mean land of the best or of a superior 
quality only, but also land of a second or third-rate quality or value, 
from being more or less stony or broken — arable, or such as in 
other parts of Canada is commonly made so, with moderate out- 
lay or labor, and on which settlers, with industry and good manage- 
ment, make a comfortable living. 

I may also add, that any estimate of what quantity of such land 
there is in a country, much of which is but little known, is neces- 
sarily very vague, and that the proportion of one-fourth, which I 
have here given, is merely an approximation I have ventured to 
make, from having had charge of the public forests of the upper 
sixty thousand square miles of the valley of the Ottawa for many 
years past. It is based on personal observation, returns of surveys 
made under my direction, and other sources of information. 

One-fourth of eighty thousand square miles of arable land, gaod 
enough for cultivation, is a great quantity, but unfortunately all of 
it is more or less depreciated by intervening bad ground, and a 
great part of it, from being remotely scattered in small pieces, has 
to be deducted as valueless for ordinary settlement, because the 
cost of getting at it would be greater than its worth. 

Forty years ago the inhabitants of Canada complained that the 
Crown and Clergy Reserves, amounting to two-sevenths of the land 
granted, obstructed the progress of settlement and maintenance of 
roads ; but where one-third or a fourth only of a country can be 
occupied, and especially where the intervening lands are rugged 
and unfavorable to road making, the case is very much worse ; for 
there the inhabitants, in addition to maintaining the roads through 
their own lands, will have to maintain and travel over twice or 
three times as much more extent of roads, which the ruggedness of 
the ground will render twice or even six times as expensive to 
make good, or even passable, as in a more favorable country,. 






106 

These roads have either to be made or struggled through un- 
made ; and where such unoccupied lands prevent the consolidation 
of settlement, there is difficulty in maintaining schools and churches, 
and the necessary intercourse of society. 

Zealous as we Ottawa people are for our locality, we would 
deceive ourselves and others were we to deny these facts ; and 
we cannot reasonably expect to attract any great stream of immi- 
gration to our country, while the vast extents of better soil, un- 
broken by such objectionable characteristics, are to be found else- 
where. 

I go into particulars as to this part of public domain, as a set- 
tling district, because, as it is the largest and the best, if its unfit- 
ness to attract immigration, in the degree that we require for the 
increase of our national strength and prosperity, be considered, that 
of our inferior territories will be evident. In this, it is not the 
desirableness of settling the Ottawa country, but the fact that it 
fails to attract immigration, that we have to consider. 

But though it does not attract immigration, — and settlement, 
owing to the same cause, will advance more slowly in it than on 
more even ground, we should not undervalue the Ottawa country 
as a field for the industry and enterprise of our native population, 
who are more capable of developing its resources. 

It presents many important advantages. Its climate is agree- 
able, and the most healthful of any in the interior of Canada. Its 
winter is more dry and bracing than that of Toronto, and much 
milder than that of Lower Canada, eastward of it. The summer 
of the middle parts of the Ottawa country is upwards of one month 
longer than that of Quebec* Fall wheat can be grown with ad- 
vantage, and yields heavy returns, and unusually high prices are 
paid for farm produce by the lumber trade. Its minerals, lead, 

* It is here proper to notice an important and very gross error, in a work on 
" The Influence of Climate in North and South America," by Mr. J. Disturnell, of 
New York. In a climatic map showing the limits of the cultivation of grains and 
vegetables, he places the entire valley of the Ottawa beyond the limits of wheat cul- 
tivation, and the north half beyond the limits of the cultivation of vegetables. If 
Mr. Disturnell had used the simple i>recaution f referring to the Census of Canada 
for 1861, he would have found that the counties of Carleton, Lanark and Renfrew, 
altogether north of his limit of wheat cultivation, yielded an average of 17 7-10 
bushels of wheat to the acre ; that their total yield of wheat for that year was 
upwards of a million of bushels, or 11 7-10 bushels to each inhabitant. That is fully 
fifty per cent, more to each person than the State of Ohio yielded per head of its 
population by the census of 1850, or nearly three times as much as the rate of wheat 
raised per head in the United States. He would have seen also, that in the township 
of Pembroke, on the Ottawa, a hundred miles north of his limit of the growth of 
wheat, the average yield of wheat was the highest, being twenty-four bushels to the 
.acre. A little enquiry would have enabled him to know that the temperature re- 
cpuired for the growth of wheat prevails, as ascertained, a hundred miles still further 
north, and beyond that to a distance not yet determined. 



107 

plumbago and iron are commencing to attract attention from their 
abundance. It has unlimited water power, which is being largely 
applied to various manufactures ; and above all, its lumber trade, 
which contributes so much to the wealth and commerce of the Pro- 
vince, and under careful management may do so for ever. 

TERRITORY NORTH OF LAKE HURON. 

"What is here stated as to the comparative inferiority of the 
Ottawa country, as a settling region, is applicable even in a greater 
degree to nearly all the vacant territories of Canada, east and west. 
The territory north of Lake Huron possesses some valuable sites for 
settlement and mining enterprise in the front parts of it, much en- 
hanced by their favorable position on the navigation of the great 
lakes ; but it is generally inferior to the Ottawa country for agri- 
cultural purposes, and in its timber. The surveys on the line from 
the Montreal liiver of the Ottawa, towards Michipieoten on Lake 
Superior, show the interior to be a very infertile rough country, in- 
creasing in ruggedness westward. 

THE ST. MAURICE TERRITORY. 

Passing eastward we have the St. Maurice territory, upwards of 
twenty-one thousand square miles in area. It is of the same Lau- 
rentian formation as the Upper Ottawa country, but rather more 
rugged and inferior to it in fitness for cultivation as well as climate 
— inferior also in its timber, for which, nevertheless, it is chiefly 
valuable ; its great river, the St. Maurice and its tributaries, pre- 
senting everywhere the means of getting that to the market. As 
very much less of it has been surveyed into townships, it is more 
difficult to estimate the quantity of arable land fit for cultivation it 
contains. It has been roughly estimated at upwards of five thou- 
sand square miles, unequally distributed. Its value will be en- 
hanced and the settlement of it powerfully encouraged by the 
manufacture of its timber. The industrious population of seigniories 
in front of it, will need the best of it with every advantage it may 
offer for their own expansion. It will never attract any consider- 
able amount of European immigration. 

THE SAGUEXAY TERRITORY. 

Of the twenty-seven thousand square miles drained by the great 
River Saguenay and its branches, about four thousand seven hun- 
dred square miles is the utmost that has been estimated as fit for 
cultivation, chiefly in the basin of Lake St. John, between the stern 
barrier of the Laurentide mountains and the still higher range fifty 
miles to the north of it, and enjoying from its sheltered position a 









108 



better climate than Quebec. Though much of it is of the richest 
description of deep clay loam, a great part of the northward of the 
lake consists of sandy flats. What is tit for settlement is required 
for the surplus French Canadian population of the old settlements 
on the lower St. Lawrence. It offers no important scope for Euro- 
pean immigration. 

THE EASTERN TOWNSHIPS 

And those opposite Quebec are, as already stated, being well 
filled up. 

THE SOUTH SIDE OF THE ST. LAWRENCE BELOW QUEBEC. 

Behind the old settlements, the slopes and valleys of the Notre- 
Dame Mountains, with much uneven though good land, have a 
cold climate, from latitude and elevation. (I have seen white 
frost on the Temiscouata Portage Koad in the month of July).. 
They present little or nothing to attract European immigrants. 

BONA VENTURE, GASPE AND RESTIGOUCHE. 

The County of Bonaventure, on the Baie des Chaleurs, and the 
Eestigouche country lying chiefly in the Province of New Bruns- 
wick, from their superior soil and climate, but especially on account 
of their admirable position for communication with Europe, are as 
advantageous for settlement as the Eastern Townships, and nearly 
equal to the better parts of the Ottawa Country. 

The soil of the County of Bonaventure, and of the north part of 
New Brunswick on the Eiver Eestigouche, is a rich warm loam, 
free from stones, even on the table lands on the mountains ; and is 
unarable only where too steep to be ploughed. It yields heavy 
crops of spring wheat, and of oats and barley, much superior in 
quantity to the acre, and in quality, to those raised in counties- 
on the St. Lawrence. 

The coast of Gaspe is similar in soil, but the summer is often 
too cold for the profitable growing of wheat. Its fisheries are very 
valuable. 

If a direct trade were opened, in coarse grains, with Great 
Britain, these countries might, to some extent, be occupied by 
European immigrants. 

I found the interior, through to the St. Lawrence, on the route 
afterwards adopted by Major Eobinson, as a line for the Intercolo- 
nial Eailroad, to be generally an arable fertile country ; judging 
from having had a hundred miles of it dug over in road making. 

This is the most healthful and romantic land within the com- 
pass of the Dominion. It has a winter temperature ten to fifteen 






109 

degrees warmer than that of Quebec ; and in summer its rich val- 
leys and high swelling hills are fanned by the fresh breezes of the 
sea. — A land of interesting historical associations, where, three 
hundred and fifty years ago, the flag of France was first unfurled 
on this continent, and the cross first planted, and knelt to, by 
christian men — grim, armed men, — forefathers possibly of men who 
fought at " Montcontour " and " Ivry/' — before the astonished gaze 
of the ancient masters of the land, now extinct, who then ruled 
from Lachine to the Gulf, and to whom the Dominion of Canada 
owes its name. Further up the banks of the Eestigouche, the high 
trees wave over the graves and ruined hearths of the defenders of 
La Petite Eochelle. It was bombarded and burned by Admiral 
Byron a year before the capture of Quebec by Wolfe. 

Returning from romance to practical fact — While the stream of 
immigration continued to find scope in Western Canada, it was 
natural that countries like this should be passed by ; but now that 
it classes with the best that there is left in Canada, it is difficult to 
see why it should be longer disregarded, especially in view of the 
Intercolonial Railroad, now to be made, being carried through part 
of it. 

Its rivers are uninterruptedly navigable by large scows drawn 
by horses, from their mouths nearly to their sources ; and freight 
from its ports to Europe costs about a dollar a ton less even than 
from Quebec ; and every enterprise of sea and land is open to the 
settler on its shores. 

These advantages belong also, more or less, to the north-east part 
of New Brunswick. In the County of Eestigouche, the proportion 
of good arable land will be found about equal to that of the Ottawa 
Country. The southern part of New Brunswick contains much 
land as valuable as the best parts of Upper Canada, but it is gene- 
rally already owned and occupied. 



INSUFFICIENCY OF OUR REMAINING LANDS TO SECURE IMMIGRA- 
TION ON A LARGE SCALE. 

This summary view of our remaining public lands shows us 
that while we have territories, presenting many excellent sites for 
the industry and enterprise of our native population, and necessary 
for their use, the best field that we have to offer for the reception 
of immigration on a large scale, such as flows to the Western 
States, or even such as formerly flowed to Upper Canada, is the 
Huron and Ottawa Country, which already, under the most favora- 
"ble trial, signally failed to attract such immigration ; and that the 
next best is a small territory on the Baie des Chaleurs and Resti- 






110 

gouche, where immigration on a small scale might be successful, 
provided an export trade in oats and barley could be established 
with Great Britain, or any adequate market. 

Now, it is evident that we cannot attract the immigration we 
desire to make us a strong people, while we have nothing better 
than that to offer. 

If, when all Canada numbered less than a million of souls, 
the great and almost unbroken extent of rich lands which Upper 
Canada presented, was no more than sufficient for our expansion 
of settlement by native increase and immigration, it is surely 
absurd to suppose that these inferior lands, in extent, soil and 
climate, isolated, or broken up by a much greater proportion of 
rugged unarable land, can be sufficient for our expansion, now that 
we number four millions, and are called upon, by the position we 
have attained, to look chiefly to our own strength for the defence 
by land of our country, and the maintenance of that constitutional 
independence that has been awarded us. 

VALUE OF REMAINING VACANT LANDS AND THEIR RESOURCES. 

In speaking of the rugged and hilly regions of our country, as 
little suited for the reception of European immigration, it is by no 
means meant to undervalue them. 

What good lands they contain, especially in lumber yielding 
countries, will have an increased value from the ready market and 
enhanced prices which lumbering operations, mining and other 
local industries, may give for their produce. 

The sons of the " habitants," and the surplus population of the 
old settlements adjoining, can select at leisure the good lands in 
our hilly regions, behind the seigniories ; and from their being near 
their homes, with their knowledge of the labor and climate of the 
country, can settle up these lands with advantage to themselves, 
while to European immigrants, they would be inaccessible and 
unavailable. The value of their minerals, which are now but begin- 
ning to be worked, can hardly be sufficiently estimated. The 
prosperity which mere fertility of soil gives a new country, soon 
attains its maximum, and is ultimately checked by imprudent 
over-cropping. We see that it has been so, and that mere fertility 
of soil never made a country great in history. But the prosperity 
that arises from mineral resources, manufactures and maritime 
advantages, though slow of being developed, may raise a country to 
a pre-eminence which mere fertility of soil can never bestow ; 
while the occupations they afford cultivate and develope the intel- 
lect and enterprise of a people to a degree 'that mere agricultural 
occupations fail ever to do. 



Ill 

Nevertheless, it is rich agricultural countries only that are 
suitable for the reception of immigration on a large scale, and that 
become populous with the greatest rapidity. 

It is as such a receptacle for immigration, in order to obtain 
that increase of population, that we want the great prairie land of 
the North-West. 

Our good lands in the Provinces are far from being filled up r 
but the nearest and best being held by private owners, requiring, 
high prices, they repel instead of attracting immigrants. 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

THE PRESERVATION" OF OUR TIMBER FORESTS AND LUMBER TRADE 
A REASON FOR ACQUIRING THE NORTH-WEST PRAIRIE LAND. 

Having assigned the preservation of our Timber Forests, which 
yield our chief staple of trade, from unnecessary and hasty destruc- 
tion, as a reason for acquiring the North-West Prairie Land, it 
seems necessary to consider the value of the lumber trade to the- 
country. In doing so it may be sufficient to take a general view 
of the value of that of Canada before Confederation. 

To judge correctly of the importance of the Lumber Trade, it is 
necessary to consider carefully the benefits arising from the expen- 
diture attending it, and the employment it gives in the country ;, 
besides that which it presents in furnishing the chief export of the 
Province, and the employment it gives in freight to British and 
Colonial Shipping. 

In considering the benefits arising from the expenditure attend- 
ing it where the timber is manufactured, it will be suitable to 
commence by estimating the cost of manufacturing the timber pro- 
duced by the lumber trade of the Ottawa country for one year. 

For this purpose it will be sufficient to take the average of the 
production of square timber on the Ottawa for the five years from. 
1861 to 1865, and the produce of the saw-logs of last year (1866), in 
sawn timber, which, owing to the rapid increase of the latter, 
recently, will go nearer a fair view of the trade than the five years' 
average would. 

Taken together these will show a total yield of about two hun- 
dred and sixty-five millions of feet, board measure, of sawn lumber, 
and very nearly twenty- four millions of cubic feet of square timber ; 
representing nearly eight hundred and seventy thousand trees. 

In the manufacture of these quantities of sawn and squared 
timber, there would be employed about 17,000 men for nine months 



112 

'.>f the year; the costs attending the manufacture and taking of the 
timber to ports of shipment would be : 

For men's wages $2,596,747 

Teams 346,760 

Hay and Oats 544,907 

Pork and Flour 990,740 

Duty on Crown Timber and price to owners 

of private timber 325,938 

Slide Dues and Boomage to the Crown or 
owners of private works, and interest on 
expenditure on Elver Improvements 134,112 

Interest on cost of Saw Mills and their equip- 
ments, insurance, &c , 269,062 

Interest on cost of shanty stock and equip- 
ments, tear, wear and casualties 149,052 

Total cost incurred by Ottawa Lumberers for 
one year, apart from further costs before 
shipment $5,357,318 

Nearly all this large amount, it will be seen, represents employ- 
ment and profit given in the country to labourers, mechanics and 
•others, in current or original expenditure made. 

Of this it will be observed that the second, third and fourth 
items, amounting to the large sum of $1,882,407 are for farm pro- 
duce. It is true that part of the provisions is not produced in the 
locality, which shows that the trade offers a market for more farm 
produce than the locality as yet furnishes. About $100,000 is 
paid or realized to the owners, for private timber, in the locality, 
and a large part of the expenditure for wages also is local, though 
much of it is paid to labourers from other parts of the Province, 
chiefly Lower Canada. 

These items of cost are given from the application of known 
rates of necessary expenditure to known quantities of timber, and 
show the cost with ordinary good management. 

From its operations being remote, the lumber trade gives very 
.high prices for farm produce in remote localities, near its works, 
to save transport of produce into them. The more remote there- 
fore, the higher are the prices given. It thereby creates a highly 
favourable market for new settlements, where, from the distance 
and want of good xoads, the value of the produce would be con- 
sumed in taking it to any other market, if it could be taken out at 
-all It thus gives encouragement and assistance where they are 
most wanted; and that on a scale much exceeding what the most 
.liberal arrangements of Government could ever afford. 






113 

It is proper to dwell upon these facts, and to look well to the 
magnitude of the amounts, because through ignorance of this 
peculiar subject, and prejudice acquired from others, or from limited 
and unfavorable knowledge, many think that the lumber trade 
impedes settlement, and is in its nature injurious to the progress 
and prosperity of the country. Experience throughout British 
America shows that it is so to the man who divides his attention 
between lumbering and his farm, to the injury of the latter. It is 
still more injurious to the man who has been tempted to settle on 
bad land by the duty on the timber given him as a bounty for doing 
so, by the Settlers' License system recently in force. But we know 
well that it is absurdly untrue, that the settler on suitable land, 
who confines his industry to his proper business, farming, is injured 
by the trade which, gives him higher prices for his produce than he 
could otherwise obtain. 

These remarks are more or less applicable to all regions of the 
then Province of Canada, where lumbering is carried on, but 
especially to the Ottawa country. 

From the remainder of the Province, the yield of sawn and 
squared timber, with the addition of staves, estimated in the same 
manner, may be about one-fifth less than that from the Ottawa and 
all its tributaries. 

When both are added together, they give a total for the whole 
Province for one year, of upwards of five hundred millions of feet 
board measure of sawn lumber, and about thirty-nine millions of 
cubic feet of squared timber, besides staves and other miscellaneous 
wood goods, in all the produce of upwards of a million and a half 
of trees, and giving employment for nine months to about 30,600 
men, costing in manufacture and transport to ports of shipment : — 

For wages of men $4,661,960 

Teams 618,057 

Hay and oats 975,915 

Pork and flour 1,763,660 

Interest on cost of shanty stock, tear and 

wear, and casualities 274,794 

Interest on cost of saw-mills and equipments, 

repairs and insurance 538,124 

Duty to Crown, or price to owners of private 

timber 571,824 

Interest on cost of river improvements, ground 
rents, boomage and slidage to Crown, and 
owners of private works 186, ( 



Total Cost to the Lumberers for one year's 
operations, for the whole Province, apart 

from further charges before shipment $9,591,022 

8 






114 



In this estimate, provisions and labour are calculated below the 
present high rates. 

But this total is far from representing the final amount or value 
of the timber. Wood goods in the form of lathwood, sleepers, 
knees, oars, &c, to the value of nearly $1,000,000, besides, got out 
by country people chiefly, have to be added to the quantity and 
value. 

This would increase the amount to $10,591,022, which, com- 
pared with $13,009,207, the total value of exports of the' forest, 
shown by the Trade and Navigation Eeturns for 1865, (less Pot and 
Pearl ashes) which the above approximation most nearly represents, 
leaves a difference of $2,418,185 to cover charges at shipping ports, 
almost entirely at Quebec, consisting of costs for culling, boomage, 
putting into shipping order, commissions on sales, &c. 

Having shown an annual expenditure by the Lumber Trade of 
over nine and a half millions of dollars, of which upwards of eight 
millions is for farm produce and men's wages, we come to another 
important item to be considered in the worth of the Lumber Trade 
to the Province, that is, what it contributes to the city of Quebec. 

It is almost unnecessary to say that it forms the chief trade of 
that city. The wealth of its merchants is chiefly made by it, 
directly or indirectly, and a large portion of its inhabitants are 
maintained by their labour, in receiving and shipping the lumber 
in summer, and in the ship-building, connected with and dependent 
on it, in winter. 

Besides the greater part of the amount before mentioned for 
charges and commissions on the timber, which Quebec receives, 
her merchants benefit largely by the freight of the vessels owned 
and built by them. The average amount of freight of timber, 
shared by them and the shipowners in Britain, for the four years 
from 1860 to 1863, at 30s. a ton, would amount to £1,258,221 
sterling, or nearly six and a half millions of dollars. 

In 1865 the value of fifty-one ships built and exported, was 
81,923,594 ; their tonnage 47,262. That this trade is dependent 
for its profits, which are derived chiefly from the freight of the first 
cargo they take on being sent home for sale, will be at once seen, 
when it is considered that a ship of 1,000 tons, worth, say $40,000, 
will make about $7,000 in freight of her cargo, when sent home 
for sale. 

The greater consumption of articles paying duty by men 
employed in lumbering, over those remaining in their parishes, 
is not to be overlooked. 

As the mother country is largely engaged in this trade with us, 
it would be decorous to consider her interests in the matter. 
Upwards of a thousand ships come annually to Quebec for car- 







goes of timber, earning profit by tlieir freights for their owners, 
who are chiefly in Britain; the annual value has been already 
stated. 

The cost of the timber when taken home is a little greater than 
that from the Baltic, but of that cost, the greater part is freight 
earned by the British shipping ; and Britain obtains a description 
of timber here which she requires, and cannot obtain from the 
Baltic. 

It is next necessary to consider the value of the Lumber Trade 
to the Province in furnishing our chief means of remittance to 
Europe, in return for our imports. 

The value of the timber imported from Canada into Great 
Britain, by the Imperial Trade and Navigation Returns, for the six 
years, from 1858 to 1863, gives an annual average of £2,750,731, 
while that of all our other goods is only £1,965,891 sterling, show- 
ing the value of our timber exported to Great Britain to be upwards 
of a third greater than that of all our other exports there ; showing 
also that the thirty thousand men, then employed in lumbering, 
furnished more to her, than all the five hundred thousand other men 
in Canada did in the same time. 

In the same manner, on comparing the total exports, for the 
year to 30th June, 1865, by our own Trade and Navigation Returns, 
after deducting the ashes, the total value of Timber Exports is 
813,009,207, all- produced in Canada, and by the labour of only 
30,600 men ; while all the other exports, without deducting any- 
thing for part of them imported, amount in value to 829,471,944, 
including all the exports produced by 600,000 other men engaged 
in agriculture and all other pursuits ; being only about two and a 
quarter times the value of the timber exported. 

This shows that each man engaged in lumbering contributes 
about ten times as much to the commerce of the country as other 
men do, besides contributing twice as much as they do to Internal 
Trade ; for all that he eats, as well as wears, gives employment to 
others, besides what he produces. A pauper settler on bad land 
contributes nothing to the country compared with him. 

This view is fully sustained by a statement carefully compiled 
by Allan Gilmour, Esq., from the Returns of Trade and Navigation, 
showing, that after deducting from the value of agricultural exports, 
the equivalents of quantities of the same articles imported, the 
average annual value of farm produce of Canada, exported from 
1857 to 1863, was only 87,639,173, while the average annual value 
of products of the forest, after deducting ashes, was 89,558,962 ; 
from 86,000,000 to 814,000,000 worth of farm produce being 
annually imported for exportation, or to take the place of that 
exported — the returns in that respect making it seem that the 



116 

surplus agricultural produce of the Province was double what it 
really was. 

On our imports we depend largely for the comforts and neces- 
saries of life ; if our exports, the remittance in payment for them 
were diminished, our imports also would have to be diminished. 

It is vain to say that they could be made up for in agricultural 
exports, for we see that to make them what they are, we have 
generally to import much from the United States. Nor could the 
labour now employed in lumbering produce equivalent farm pro- 
duce ; we have already seen that it would hardly produce one- 
tenth of it. 

It is also vain to say, as some do, that a great part of the com- 
puted value of lumber exported is properly due to agriculture, as 
merely representing in another form the agricultural produce con- 
sumed in the manufacture of it. On the contrary, it is evident 
that it is the lumber trade which gives a value to the agricultural 
produce which it consumes ; for we know absolutely that if there 
were no manufactures, or other branches of industry, to purchase 
and consume the farmers' surplus produce beyond what he can 
use, it would be as valueless as heaps of sand. 

Such being the importance of the lumber trade to the internal 
industry and external commerce of the Provinces, it is to the 
general interest of the Dominion that the public forests, on lands 
unsuitable for cultivation, should be preserved for economic use 
for ever, if possible. 

It is evident also that the destruction of valuable timber yield- 
ing forests, by extraordinary efforts to force settlement upon them, 
while we have, or can have lands more suitable for cultivation, is 
undesirable, as injurious to the real interest alike of the country 
and the settlers themselves. 

While every facility should be given for the settlement of the 
lands really fit for cultivation, to be found in our lumbering regions, 
no inducement should be held out to settlers to take pine timbered 
lands in preference to others more suitable for successful settle- 
ment. 

In lumbering territories some lands, most frequently the best 
for settlement, have very little or no timber of commercial value 
upon them, and others have a great deal; some have so much of 
such timber that the value of it is equal to ten times the ordinary 
value of land. The latter are generally unfit for settlement. 

The holding out of the pine timber as an inducement to settlers 
leads to pretended settlement, or temporary settlement for the pur- 
pose of lumbering on such lands, causing destruction of the forests 
by extensive running fires, and also over manufacture. 

By withdrawing that inducement, and leaving settlement on 
the lands fit for it, in our lumbering territories to be encouraged 







117 

by the far more wholesome stimulus of the high prices for farm 
produce given by lumberers, and especially by opening our Central 
Prairie Country for settlement, our timber forests, which yield 
our chief staple of export trade, may be preserved from the 
precipitate destruction to which they would otherwise be exposed. 

It is important to the prosperity of settlements in our lumbering 
territories that the lumber trade should steadily continue ,in them, 
for were the local market it offers to fail, the produce of the 
remote settlements could not be taken to any other market with 
profit, especially as the intervening rugged grounds would prevent 
the maintenance of good roads, and greatly increase the cost of 
transport. 

The simplest way of withdrawing to a great extent the induce- 
ments to take up pine timbered lands would be to give the land for 
nothing to actual settlers, or sell it to them at a much reduced price, 
under the condition that the timber on it should not be exempt 
from the usual Crown duties, on being cut and taken to market, by 
the settler or others. 

This would also stop the abuse of taking up lands under the 
pretence of settlement in order to evade the payment of duties on 
the timber, and the duties saved to the revenue by it would soon 
amount to an important sum annually. 



CHAPTER XXVII. 

ROUTES TO RED RIVER COMPARED. 

We have now to consider what way we have of getting into 
this Central Prairie Country ; the character and comparative 
value of the different routes known, by land and water, and what 
can be made of them, as means of travel and heavy transport; 
especially those which the nature of the intervening country affords 
through our own territory. 

HUDSON'S BAY ROUTE. 

The route by Hudson's Bay to York Factory by sea, and thence 
by Hill Eiver and its many portages, to Lake Winnipeg and Eed 
Eiver, may be dismissed without further consideration. As only 
one voyage can be made in a season into Hudson's Bay, and that 
with difficulty and danger — with a rough portage navigation of 
nearly four hundred miles from York Factory to Lake Winnipeg, 
ascending upwards of six hundred feet — this route can never be an 










advantageous outlet for the produce of the interior fertile region, 
and much less can it be an inlet for us. The cost of transport by- 
it from York Factory to Eed Eiver is four dollars a hundred 
pounds. 

FORT WILLIAM AND DOG LAKE KOUTE. 

We may now turn to the route from Fort William, on Lake 
Superior, which is being opened by Government. 

Commencing near Fort William, the first part of this route is 
the Dog Portage Eoad, leading north-westward twenty-five miles 
to the foot of Dog Lake. This road was projected in the field by the 
Canadian Exploring Expedition. It is to be a thoroughly made 
turnpike road, well crowned and graded ; six miles of it have been 
made this last season ; and in further pursuance of Mr. Dawson's 
original project of improvement, material has been prepared for 
the building of a dam at the outlet of Dog Lake. This dam, by 
raising the lake, will gorge Dog Kiver, that feeds it, so as to give a 
navigable reach of about thirty miles to Jourdain's Eapids, The 
elevation of Jourdain's Eapicls above Lake Superior is seven hun- 
dred and twenty feet. 

At three and a quarter miles further, is the height of land, 
Prairie Portage, two and a half miles in length, between the waters 
of Lake Superior and those of Lake Winnipeg. It is eight 
hundred and eighty-seven feet above the level of Lake Superior. 

A good road is to be made over it, eleven miles in length, from 
Jourdain's Eapids to Savanne Eiver, which is eight hundred and 
thirty-two feet above Lake Superior. 

Savanne Eiver is about sixty-six feet wide and flows sluggishly, 
with a depth of four feet, for twenty-two miles, to Lac des Mille 
Lacs, which is thirty-four miles in length, forming, with it, a navi- 
gable reach of fifty-six miles, which, by constructing a dam below 
the outlet of the lake, might be increased in depth, and to about 
sixty miles in length. 

Savanne Eiver is the head of the Eiver Seine, which flows west- 
ward from Lac des Mille Lacs, by a course of about a hundred 
miles to the foot of the Twelve Portages, where its waters reach the 
level of Eainy Lake ; to this Eiver, as a route of communication, 
we shall have occasion further to refer. 

After going forty-two miles by Savanne Eiver and Mille Lacs, 
the route we are describing leaves the latter at twenty miles from 
the head of it, on the south side, and passes by a portage of less 
than a quarter of a mile (seventeen chains) to Baril Lake, which is 
seven and a half miles in length, and nearly two feet higher than 
Mille Lacs. 




. 



From Baril Lake, Brule Portage, about a quarter of a mile 
(twenty-two chains) in length, descends forty -seven feet to Lake 
Windogoostogoon, seven and three-quarter miles long, and lesser 
lakes connected with it, which, by a dam at the head of French 
Portage below them, will give a navigable reach of about eleven 
and a half miles, in which there is a fall of seven feet now. 

From it, a portage of a mile and three-quarters descends a hun- 
dred feet to Lac Francais, which, with Lake Kaogasica, or Pickerel 
Lake, makes a slack water navigation of nearly eleven miles and 
three-quarters. 

Then there are two short portages, with a pond of a mile and a 
half between them, to be passed, by a road of two miles in length, 
with a descent of a hundred and twenty-four feet, to a fine, deep 
creek, sixty-six feet w T ide, which, at a mile and a half further, en- 
ters Sturgeon Lake, forming with it a deep navigable reach of 
sixteen miles. This reach Mr. Daw T son proposes to extend down- 
wards to twenty-eight miles, by damming the river at Island Por- 
tage, to flood out the rapids below Sturgeon Lake. The head of 
Sturgeon Lake is three hundred and thirty-three feet lower than 
the height of land at Prairie Portage, and only a hundred and 
twenty-live feet above the level of Eainy Lake, and is about forty- 
eight miles due east of it. By the course of the waters forming the 
route we are describing, the distance from the head of Sturgeon 
Lake to Eainy Lake is sixty-five miles. 

These facts regarding Sturgeon Lake are worthy of attention, 
for in view of the proposal to construct a railroad from Fort Wil- 
liam, or rather from Point de Meuron to Eainy Lake, which would 
touch the head of Sturgeon Lake, it is important to consider 
whether it would not be better to terminate the railroad and adopt 
the water route there. 

As the forty-eight or fifty miles of direct distance from Sturgeon 
Lake to Eainy Lake would probably, in a rough country full of 
lakes, require one-fifth more, or sixty miles of railroad, costing, 
owing to the rocky unevenness of the surface, at least £600,000, 
the improvement of the river by locks and dams, to overcome a 
rise which is little more than one-third of that of the Welland 
Canal, would cost much less ; and we know that the line of water 
so improved could do more than four times as much business, and 
carry heavy freight at half the cost per ton. It would be more 
likely to give us command of the traffic, as it would bring the con- 
tinuous navigation of the Lake of the Woods and Eainy Lake 
about fifty miles in direct distance nearer us. The supply of 
water is sufficient, as Sturgeon Eiver is from three to six chains 
in width, with abundant lake reservoirs on its course and con- 
nected with it. If done on the same scale of dimensions and qua- 




120 



lity of work, and at the same expensive rate as the Eideau Canal, 
it would cost only £280,000, or less than half the cost of a railroad, 
— the lockage being little more than a quarter that of the Eideau. 

If this were done, the remainder of the route we are describing 
w T ould continue permanently to be the line of communication. 
But the same arguments, besides other reasons, point forcibly to 
the advantage of canalling the whole route, or that by the Eiver 
Seine to Lac des Mille Lacs and Dog Lake, so as to reduce the 
use of railway to the least possible extent. 

At Island Eapids, by which Sturgeon Eiver descends ten feet 
into Pine Lake, a portage road of thirteen chains in length is re- 
quired, or, in case of canalling, lockage of forty-five feet to over- 
come that fall, and flood out the small rapids on the twenty-eight 
and a half miles above it. 

Pine Lake is an expansion of the Eiver Nameaukan or Macan, a 
deep and powerful stream, the main branch of the Eainy Eiver or 
Winnipeg. This lake presents a navigable reach of ten miles to 
its outlet, the Macan Eiver, and extends further westward. 

Then there are two miles of strong current terminating in Snake 
Falls, which may render a portage road of that length necessary ; 
or in case of canalling a dam and double lock making seventeen 
feet lift, besides the additional height required in this and all other 
lockages mentioned, to meet the difference between high and low 
water. 

Then after three miles of slack water, Crow Portage requires 
a road of nine chains in length, or a lock of ten feet lift. 

Then follows a reach of eight and a half miles to the Great 
Palls, with shoals and two small rapids, which should be flooded 
out by damming up the water a few feet at the head of the falls, in 
case of canalling. 

The Great Palls, sixteen feet in height, are now passed by a 
portage six chains in length. In the distance of four and a half 
miles from the Palls to Cross Lake, there is one rapid which de- 
scends ten feet, and another of seven feet fall, run by canoes. These, 
with the falls, would require thirty-six feet lockage, or a good 
portage road of four and a half miles. By following the south 
channel (the U. S. boundary), or the portage of two miles from the 
west extremity of Pine Lake to the level of Cross Lake, the diffi- 
culty here would be less, or the portages be reduced to one. 

Then follows the navigable reach of Cross Lake, eight and a 
half miles long to Bare Portage, where a portage road of nearly a 
quarter of a mile in length is required, to the entrance of Eainy 
Lake, or a lock of eight and a half feet lift., 

We have then thirty-six and three-quarter miles of deep navi- 
gation along Eainy Lake and Eainy Eiver to its Great Palls, two 







miles beyond the lake. They are twenty-three feet in height, 
requiring a double lock at least. 

Professor Hind says that Eainy Lake freezes over about 1st of 
December, and is open about 1st May. 

The boundary line of the United States passes through Pine 
Lake, Cross Lake, Eainy Lake and Eiver, and the Lake of the 
Woods. 

Eainy Eiver, which the route now follows, is a large, deep, navi- 
gable stream, averaging six hundred feet in width. Its course, from, 
the Great ?Falls to the Lake of the Woods, is about seventy-four 
and a half miles. In this distance there are two small rapids ; the 
Manitou, at thirty-one and a half miles down, falls two and a half 
feet in three chains of length, and the Long Eapid, at seven and a 
half miles further, falls three feet in five chains. It is said that as 
they are so short, a good steamer by gettiug under strong headway 
could ascend them. They have a fair depth of water, but may 
require improvement. 

Leaving Eainy Eiver, the route originally proposed traverses 
the Lake of the Woods and Lac Platte, connected with it, to its 
western extremity, a distance of eighty-four miles, forming, with 
Eainy Eiver, an unbroken reach of navigation a hundred and fifty- 
eight and a half miles in length. From the west end of Lac Platte 
the distance to the Eed Eiver at Fort Garry, by the exploring line 
measured, is ninety-one and a half miles. 

But on further examination, it was found that the best site for a 
road was to be had by leaving the Lake of the Woods at the extre- 
mity of its north-west arm, a long inlet extending south of Lac Platte. 
By doing so the route over the Lake of the Woods is reduced to 
fifty miles, and the land route from it to Fort Garry is nearly a, 
hundred miles in length. This land route was traversed, on. horse- 
back, and is an exceedingly favorable site for a railroad'.. 

We may here make a few general remarks on the route from 
Lake Superior to Eed Eiver, which we have been describing. It 
naturally presents itself for consideration in two great divisions. 
The first part, from Fort William on Lake Superior to Eainy Lake,, 
two hundred and six and a half miles in length by computation, 
consisting of eleven portage roads, varying from the ninth part of 
a mile to twenty-five miles in length — amounting together to forty- 
seven and a quarter miles of land road — and ten reaches of slack 
water, which, with the exception of one short piece of three miles,, 
vary from seven and a half to forty miles in length, making toge- 
ther a hundred and fifty-nine and a quarter miles of water convey- 
ance. 

The second part, from the east end of Eainy Lake to Fort Garry 
on Eed Eiver, two hundred and sixty-one and a quarter miles in 







length by computation, consisting of a hundred, and sixty-one and 
a quarter miles of unbroken navigation, excepting at Rainy River 
Falls, and a hundred miles of land road, from the north-west arm 
of the Lake of the "Woods to Fort Garry. 

Making a total distance by this route of four hundred and sixty- 
seven and three-quarter miles from Fort William to Fort Garry, of 
which there are a hundred and forty-seven and a quarter miles of 
land route, and three hundred and twenty and a half miles of 
water communication ; the latter in twelve divisions, if no canal- 
ling be done. 

Such is the line of boat and waggon communication with Red 
River which this route would afford, on the simple scale of im- 
provement already commenced — by making the hundred and forty- 
seven miles of road required, one hundred of which is over an 
even and inexpensive site, partly prairie ground — and construct- 
ing three or perhaps four wooden dams, which would cost less 
than what some Ottawa lumberers would spend in improvements 
on a single river. 

As to the character of the roads and navigable reaches so 
obtained, the roads, though costly to make, from their remoteness, 
and the frequently rocky or swampy character of the ground, 
would be as favorable for transport as good roads in Canada 
usually are ; for the ascents and descents are not such as to render 
them otherwise. 

The navigable reaches, though sometimes short, being deep 
lakes, flooded streams and large rivers, would, even without canal- 
ling, admit of boats drawing upwards of three feet of water in the 
shallowest portions of the line. The tonnage of such boats might 
be considerable ; and in the greater waters, others of a larger size 
might be used as preferable. Large row-boats and barges with 
sails might be used on the short reaches, and steamboats on the 
longer ones. At first, no doubt boats like those of the Hudson's 
Bay Company, that could be drawn over the portages, would be 
used, till suitable boats were established on each reach. 

It is to be observed that this navigation would not be subject to 
interruption from droughts, or obstruction from sand bars, like that 
of the shallow and swift tributaries of the Missouri, or even the 
Red River in Minnesota. 

As soon as the portage roads were opened, there are plenty of 
enterprising men who would settle on them at the landings, and 
keep teams and waggons to do the transport on them, as on the 
Ottawa portages. 

Such is the communication this route would afford if opened in 
an economical way for immediate use. 




, 



123 

In the forgoing, by following the Macan River between Pine Lake and 
Cross Lake, for the purpose of connected description of the main stream, 
instead of the two mile portage between them adopted by Mr. Dawson, 
two portages are unnecessarily added, making together nearly five miles over- 
estimated as land carriage in all my calculations of this route, wherever they 
occur, in tables or otherwise. 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 

DESCRIPTION OF ROUTES CONTINUED.— CAPACITY OF ROUTE BY 
STURGEON LAKE COMBINED WITH RAILROAD. 

Before proceeding further, it is well to consider the ultimate 
capacity of this route, if improved by lockage past the portages, 
from the head of Sturgeon Lake westward, with a railroad from 
that point to Fort William, as already mentioned, and another 
from the north-west arm of the Lake of the Woods to Fort Garry. 

This route, so modified, presents three naturally distinct parts : 
First, — a line of a railroad from Point de Meuron, on the Kammisti- 
quoia, eight miles west of Fort William, to the head of Sturgeon 
Lake, which with one-fifth added to the direct distance for una- 
voiadable sinuosities, due to the nature of the country, would be 
one hundred and twenty-two miles in length. 

Second, — a water communication of two hundred and twenty- 
six miles in length from the head of Sturgeon Lake to the extre- 
mity of the north-west arm of the Lake of the Woods, to be 
rendered continously navigable throughout, on a scale much 
exceeding that of the original Erie Canal, by the construction of 
sixteen locks, equal to about a hundred and forty feet of lockage. 

Third, — a railroad of a hundred miles in length from the Lake 
of the Woods to Fort Garry, including only one-tenth additional 
on the direct distance for sinuosities — the ground being highly 
favorable. 

Making a total distance to Fort Garry, of four hundred and forty- 
eight miles, of which nearly one-half would be unbroken naviga- 
tion. 

To assist in judging of the natural advantages and capacity of 
this water system, it is to be observed that Sturgeon Eiver, a 
strong stream from three to six chains wide, would, with its lakes, 
be converted into a level sheet of water twenty-eight miles in 
length ; and that the Nameaukan, next, followed through its expan- 
sions to Eainy Lake, is equal to fully twice the Eiver Eideau in 
passing volume of water. At and below its great falls, where the 







principal works on it are required, its waters can be turned off by 
the south side of the island and the bed laid nearly bare for the 
construction of the locks, if the river be followed. 

As Mr. Dawson's and Mr. Napier's separate levellings very 
nearly agree, though depending on estimation in parts, in making 
the head of Strugeon Lake a hundred and twenty-five feet higer 
than Eainy Lake, if we allow for the descent of the river in parts 
on the sixty-five miles of distance, a lockage downwards of a 
hundred and seventeen feet in fourteen locks, as described, would 
seem sufficient. The remaining two locks would be required at 
the Falls of Eainy Eiver, as already mentioned. 

As Eainy Lake is said to open about the first of May, we may 
assume that the waters of Sturgeon Eiver, within fifty miles of it, 
and not much higher, will be open for navigation nearly as soon 
as it, though they may not remain open, like it, so late as the first 
of December. 

Wooden dams would be by far the most economical and most 
suitable on such a route. The tenacity and strength of wood work 
is much greater than stone, and under water it never decays. It 
would do well enough also for the lock walls if well secured, backed 
solidly with stones, earth and brushwood, in broken layers. The 
parts that could not be kept generally wet or under water could be 
easily repaired. 

LINE OF RAILROAD FKOM FORT WILLIAM TO STURGEON LAKE. 

Of the character of the country between Fort William, on Lake 
Superior, and Sturgeon Lake, we are not entirely ignorant. An 
exploration was made through it sixty miles westward, though not 
with a view to a railway. Though rough and rocky, it was found 
to be lower and less rugged than the country towards Lake Superior, 
which is mountainous, very rough and precipitous. 

As the height of the water-shed to be traversed is probably 
about a thousand feet, its elevation is not such as necessarily to 
present an unsurmountable obstacle in a distance of a hundred and 
twenty-two miles. Without an adequate exploration for the purpose, 
nothing can be said with certainty as to the quality of the railway 
line it might afford. It is believed that a practicable railway could 
be made by sufficient expenditure. On such terms it would be well 
worth making, if we could do no better. But even if a line of 
favorable general grades be found, yet, owing to the unarable 
character of the country generally, the frequent out-cropping of beds 
of primitive rock, and unevenness of surface, the cost will probably 
be at least thirty per cent, greater than in .an even arable country. 

The conditions presented by the country to be traversed are all 
unfavorable to a railway, which would besides be destitute of the 







usual advantage of being useful in winter, being subsidiary to a 
water communication. 

For water communication, on the other hand, the conditions are 
unusually favorable — abundant summit supply — rivers and chains 
of deep lakes nearly in the line desired, offering extensive sheets of 
slack water, with the difference of level, accumulated so as to be 
most advantageously dealt with by lockage. 

LINE OF RAILROAD FROM THE LAKE OF THE WOODS TO RED 

RIVER. 

For the line of Eailroad from the Lake of the Woods to Eed 
River, on the other hand, the conditions are in the highest degree 
favorable — an alluvial plain country, where the bridging and grading 
required will be very unusually little. Some low embankments, 
in shallow swamps with hard bottoms, will, however, be required. 

The road will not be useless in winter ; there will be sawn 
lumber to be carried to the prairie settlements from the forests on 
the Lake of the Woods and its tributaries, and fuel from the exten- 
sive beds of excellent peat that abound ; and the line will be 
in the proper position to form part of a direct interior railroad to 
Montreal. 

These details are given so fully respecting this route, involving 
the construction of a railway to Sturgeon Lake, not for the purpose 
of setting it forth as the best we have, which is very questionable, 
but because we are already in possession of sufficient information 
respecting it to give us reason to believe that, such as it is, if we 
had no better, its natural capacity and advantages are such, notwith- 
standing the disadvantage of a very expensive piece of railway, as 
to give us, through our own territory, a highway for the heavy 
traffic of our north-west prairie lands, decidedly superior to any 
other known, not within our territory, as will immediately more 
clearly appear. 

SUPERIOR CHARACTER OF THE WATER COMMUNICATION. 

Continuing to speak of the water communication, as it would 
be, if improved by lockage from the head of Sturgeon Lake west- 
ward, it divides itself into two parts, distinctly different in character 
and condition. 

First, the waters of the Sturgeon Eiver and the JSTameaukan to 
Rainy Lake, sixty-five miles, where nearly all the lockage is 
required; secondly, the remaining hundred and sixty-one miles, 
from the east end of Eainy Lake to the end of the north-west arm 
of the Lake of the Woods. As the latter is already a magnificent 
stretch of inland navigation, of great capacity, requiring lockage 






126 




only at Rainy Falls, it is to the Sturgeon and Nameaukan part only 
thai* the term canalling can properly be applied. 

To engineers, the favorable character of the navigation it would 
seemingly aftbrd, will be sufficiently apparent from what has been 
already stated respecting it. To enable those who are not familiar 
with such subjects, to judge of it, and of the economy in rendering 
it available, and in the after use of it, it may be necessary to 
explain that the comparative value of such a navigation depends 
on the length of it, compared with the amount of lockage, alike 
as regards the cost of making the locks and works connected with 
them, and the maintaining and working of them ; and on account 
of the delay to vessels in passing through them ; and also upon the 
capacity of the navigation obtained, as the economy of transport by 
it will be in proportion to the size of the vessels that can use it. 

The least favorable, the Sturgeon and JSTameaukan section, 
compares very advantageously with other river and canal naviga- 
tions of the best description. 

The Erie Canal, which has been so exceedingly useful and 
beneficial, has a total lockage of 692 feet in 363 miles of length, or 
about l T 9 \j feet of average lockage to the mile. 

The Eideau Canal, which was exceedingly useful till superseded 
by the St. Lawrence Canals, has a total lockage of 446 J feet, (or 
by adding the lift of the locks in detail 454 feet 11 inches,) in its 
length of 126f miles or 3/^ feet per mile. 

The Sturgeon and jSTameaukan section of this route, with 117 
feet of lockage on its length of 65 miles, would have an average 
lockage of only 1~^q feet per mile. 

As to its capacity,' it would be, as stated, much greater than that 
of the Erie Canal as originally made, the depth of which was four 
feet, its locks ninety feet in length and fifteen feet in width. 

The Sturgeon and Nameaukan section, according to published 
and unpublished information, apparently will afford, when improved 
by lockage, a depth of at least five feet, which is that of the Eideau 
Canal ; and were it desirable the locks might be a hundred and 
eighty feet long and thirty-five feet wide, that is to say, equal to 
five times the original capacity of the Erie Canal ; or greater if 
required. 

Besides the greater capacity, this navigation would admit of the 
use of steamboats, and of their going at full speed, as there would 
be no artificial banks to be injured by the swell they occasioned. 

Mr. McAlpine, a high authority, in his report of the Erie Canal, 
states that from 1848 to 1852, the proportion of tonnage transported 
on the Erie Canal and the New York Central Eailroad, was as 32 
on the Canal to 1 on the Eailroad, and still more favorable to the. 
Canal as to heavy articles. 







Now, as a Canal of greater capacity admits of freight being 
carried at a lower rate, it seems grossly evident, that, even the 
Sturgeon and Nameaukan section of our route, with less lockage 
and five times the capacity — and obtained at no cost for canalling, 
excepting the locks — would have a much greater advantage over 
railroads for transport than the Erie Canal possessed. 

It is equally evident, that if we apply the comparison to the 
whole line of 226 miles of water communication on this route, 
when so improved, with only 140 feet of lockage, or only ■££$ of a 
foot to the mile, the superiority over any railroad of equal length 
will be much greater still. 

These details and comparative views are gone over for the pur- 
pose of establishing a basis of comparison, in considering what 
advantage we possess as to routes of access to our interior territory, 
a question of much importance to us in relation to it, and one on 
which conclusions against the practicability of our maintaining 
communication advantageously with that territory have been drawn 
hastily, and I would venture to say, in error. 

The details given may seem prolix, but no opinion of value on- 
this important question can be formed without some reference to 
them ; and I beg to remark, generally, that these and other details 
on the subject of communication are quoted from the reports of our 
explorers, with no pretension in using them beyond that of roughly 
approaching such an opinion or suggesting investigation. 

As the information we have of the Baril Portage and Sturgeon 
Lake route is a great deal more ample than that before the public, re- 
specting the route by the Eiver Seine, the opportunity is taken of 
using it to show the character of the navigation that would be 
afforded by either of these routes. 

It is necessary to explain, that in setting forth a line of railroad, 
to Sturgeon Lake, as more advantageous than one to Eainy Lake, it 
is by no means meant to show that to be the best means of com- 
munication we can have. On the contrary, the Sturgeon Lake route 
admits of being canalled throughout, with facility from Lac des 
Mille Lacs ; its deep lakes being- highly favorable, and Lac des Mille 
Lacs affording an abundant summit supply of water. It would 
admit of the water communication being carried through even to 
Dog Lake, corresponding in that respect with the Seine route, pre- 
senting, like it, the advantage of greater economy, alike in the con- 
struction of necessary works and in the cost of transport on it. 

ROUTE BY THE RIVER SEINE. 

The Seine route corresponds with that now under improvement, 
as far as Lac des Mille Lacs, which is common to both, together 
with the slack water reach of Dog Lake, already described. 







The distances here given do not exactly agree with Mr. Dawson's tables. I 
have used those stated in Mr. Napier's tables, — not as being more correct, but 
because they are least favorable, in order to avoid seeming to desire to over-estimate 
the comparative value of our interior route of water communication. 

The difference arises from the length of most of the slack water reaches having 
'been necessarily determined merely by estimation or cursory survey. 

On this route, Savanne Eiver and Lac des Mille Lacs form to- 
gether fifty-six miles of navigable water, which might be increased 
in length and depth by damming. 

Lac des Mille Lacs is about eight hundred and thirty-two feet 
above Lake Superior — fifty-five feet lower than the height of land, 
and four hundred and three feet higher than Eainy Lake, the level 
of which is attained by the Seine about a hundred miles, by its 
course, below Lac des Mille Lacs. 

In that distance the Seine presents thirteen short reaches of 
navigable water, of from about three to twelve miles in length, 
separated by rapids or falls ; the last and greatest being at the 
Twelve Portages, where it falls seventy-two feet in twelve miles, 
to the level of Eainy Lake. 

To render this river navigable from Eainy Lake to the head of 
Savanne Eiver, near the height of land, say a hundred and sixty 
miles, with a small allowance for the descent of the stream, about 
three hundred and eighty feet of lockage would be required ; mak- 
ing an average of about 2 T 3 o 7 o feet per mile, or less than two-thirds 
of the rate of lockage per mile on the Eideau Canal. To state the 
matter more simply, a navigation thirty-four miles longer than the 
Eideau Canal would be obtained, with sixty feet less of lockage 
than it has. 

As the head of this navigation is, by the route now being opened, 
only sixty -six miles from Thunder Bay, near Fort William, it might 
be connected by a railroad of about that length. 

Or, (though a better way could most probably be found by the 
water courses,) as the height of land is only fifty-five feet higher 
than Lac des Mille Lacs, and is described as a sandy flat,— -by a 
dam of thirty-five feet in height at the outlet of Mille Lacs, and a 
cutting of from thirteen to twenty-five feet in depth, over a length 
of five miles, the waters of that lake would be carried over the 
height of land, with a depth of five feet, by a downward lockage 
of a hundred and nineteen feet in that distance, to the head of the 
slack water of Dog Lake, which a dam of thirty-four feet in height 
at its outlet would obtain; using Mr. Napier's levels as least 
favorable. 

This would extend the navigation thirty-seven miles further, and 










129 

bring it within twenty-five miles of the landing of Thunder Bay, 
on Lake Superior.* 

On the distance of a hundred and ninety-seven miles, from the 
foot of Dog Lake to Eainy Lake, the amount of ascent and descent 
to be overcome by lockage would be five hundred and twenty-nine 
feet, (that is a hundred and sixty-three feet less than the Erie 
Canal,) making an average of 2 T % 9 o feet per mile, or about one 
quarter less per mile than the Eideau Canal. 

As the Seine drains an area of about three thousand superficial 
miles, or more than double what the Eiver Eideau does, and 
Lac des Mille Lacs, which would be the summit reservoir of this 
route, receives the waters of upwards of seven hundred superficial 
miles of a proverbially rainy country, or more than double the area 
that the Eideau has to furnish its summit supply, there is little 
reason to doubt the sufficiency of it. The capacity of the route to 
afford a sufficient depth of channel seems unquestionable, as twenty- 
four feet additional lockage would apparently flood the river to 
levels throughout. 

The practicability of this route, therefore, resolves itself into a 
mere question of cost. The works required on it are not of a nature 
to render the expense extraordinary, and the commerce of the in- 
terior may, at no very remote period, be such as to render the open- 
ing of the route in this manner profitable. 

It would then consist of three hundred and fifty-eight miles of 
continuous navigation, from the lower end of Dog Lake to the ex- 
tremity of the north-west arm of the Lake of the Woods, the average 
lockage on which would be only lyVo feet per mile, and a hundred 
and twenty-five miles of railroad, that is, twenty-five from Thunder 
Bay, on Lake Superior, to Dog Lake, and a hundred from the Lake 
of the Woods to Fort Garry, on the Eed Eiver, — making the total 
length of the route four hundred and eighty -three miles. 

The continuous navigation would be nine miles longer than the 

* Since the above was written, Mr. Dawson, by further survey this summer, 
(1868), has found a new and more favorable route by which the navigable water of 
Lac des Mille Lacs can be carried through the height of land and brought within 
about forty miles of Lake Superior, at a cost so small as to admit of the route being 
made immediately available in connection with the greater part of the Dog Portage 
Road already commenced. 

This impportant improvement dispenses with the interruption of the ten or eleven 
miles of portage road at the height of land, which is crossed at a thirty feet lower 
level, through a ravine, by which the waters of Lake Shebandowan on the River 
Matawin, a branch of the Kaministiquoia, can be flooded through, in an unbroken 
reach of thirty miles, to Lac des Mille Lacs. It shortens the route to Rainy Lake 
twenty-five miles — reduces the obstructions on it to a few short portages, amounting 
in all to about six-and-a-half miles ; and in case of future canalling will not require 
the five miles of deep cutting and about a hundred and fifty feet of lockage neces- 
sary in crossing the height of land from Lac des Mille Lacs to Dog Lake by the old 
route. 

9 







130 

main trunk of the Erie Canal, but would have forty feet less 
lockage, the average of which would be only 1/^ per mile on the 
whole. 

As steamers of a good size could be used on it, and often at full 
speed, it would be superior to a canal. Possessing even more 
than the usual advantage that a canal has, in capacity and economy 
of transport, over a railroad, and reducing the extent of the 
latter necessary to a minimum, it would render this route better 
than any other known for heavy freight, and therefore for that of 
the interior generally.* 

In relation to our routes of water communication to Eed Eiver, 
the following remarks on the neglect of canal and slack water 
navigation, contained in an article in the " Scientific American " for 
January, 1868, may not be out of place. 

The writer says "this neglect is in a great measure due to the 
mania for building railroads, which has for many years past absorbed 
the attention and capital of the American people, without yielding 
a return at all proportionate to the outlay." 

After speaking of the disproportionately small outlay, in ren- 
dering streams completely navigable that are already partly so, he 
says, "It is not at all essential that streams should be large or 
deep to obtain sufficient depth of channel for barges or small 
steam-boats, as a few feet of water would amply suffice for vessels 
of the requisite tonnage for inland trade, steam propulsion being 
perfectly admissable (there being no artificial banks to be washed 
as with canals) ; the cost of transport would be so low as to permit 
the carrying of all available freights, and the employment of fast 
steam-packets would provide a means of travel more pleasant, and 
quite as rapid, as the accommodation trains on many railroads." 

These remarks would seem to be applicable, with much more 
force, to the generally large and deep waters of our route to Eed 
Eiver. We may appropriately add to them the opinion of Mr. 
Jarvis, an Engineer of great experience in such matters, expressed 
in his report to the Canadian Government, on the proposed 
Caughnawaga Canal. He says that many persons suppose that 
Eailroads will in a great measure supersede Canals, but that it is 
evident that this conclusion has been reached without considera- 
tion, especially when applied to channels of great trade. Speaking 

* I have obtained much valuable information on this and other subjects of this 
pamphlet, verbally, beyond what appears in his Report, from Mr. Dawson, whose 
opinion on such matters is of great value, from his ability as an Engineer, and his 
experience in River Work in new countries. As such information, though exceed- 
ingly copious and valuable, cannot be quoted in detail, being unpublished, it is only 
in this manner that it can be adequately acknowledged. Mr. Dawson, however, is 
not committed to any error in fact or in judgment I may have made in using it. 

A. J. R. 







of the trade of the West, he says, "In regard to the trade under 
consideration, it may be remarked, that the great mass is com- 
posed of bulky and heavy articles, of such general value as mate- 
rially feels the weight of transport charges, especially if the dis- 
tance moved be great, and cannot under the general condition of 
the market afford to pay much additional, to save a few days' time 
in transit." 

Now, as a remoteness which will place even lighter articles of 
commerce at the disadvantage spoken of by Mr. Jarvis is un- 
questionably the greatest drawback which the prosperity of our 
interior prairie land will be subject to, and as there will be many 
articles, products of agricultural and other industry, the bare pos- 
sibility of exporting which will depend on even the slightest dif- 
ference in cost of freight, it is evident that we should avail our- 
selves to the utmost degree of water communication, wherever 
cheaper transport can be obtained by it, even if at greater original 
cost in utilizing it; much more therefore should we do so where it 
can be made available at less expense. 

It cannot be argued that water communication being shut for 
a long winter is a reason for not doing so; for as long as water 
communication is to form a great part of the route to Eecl Eiver,, 
not only beyond Fort William, but also in getting there, it will 
necessarily govern the utility of the Eailways depending upon it; 
and the great depth of snow that fells in the slope towards Lake 
Superior is some what against the utility of any Eailroad there in 
winter. 

COST OF IMPROVING OR CANALLING RIVERS. 

Having assumed $40,000 a mile* or say thirty percent, over 
the cost of our cheapest railways in Canada, as the least possible 
cost of a railroad from Lake Superior to the Eainy Lake waters, 
830,000 would be in proportion a very ample rate at which to 
estimate the railroad from the Lake of the Woods to Eed Eiver. 
Together with these rates it is necessary to form some idea of the 
cost of improving or canalling rivers, in order to form any opinion 
of the comparative economy of each as available means of com- 
munication. Difficult as it may at first sight appear, we have the 
means of approximating the probable limit of cost of such improve- 
ment, in a general way it is true, but in such a way as may be 
accepted as reliable. 

Such river work is widely different from ordinary canalling. 
The length of the navigation throws no light whatever on the cost; 

* The average cost of Railways already made in Upper and Lower Canada ia 
$66,222^0 per mile. 




it is the difference of level — the dams and locks required to over- 
come it — that determine the cost. 

We have for data as to that, a case of the same kind, the 
Rideau Canal, on which the lockage is 455 feet, or only 
one-sixtli less than that required to make a continuous navi- 
gation like that of the Rideau, from Dog Lake, twenty-five miles 
from Lake Superior, through to Rainy Lake. The Rideau Canal 
is also a system of rivers and lakes. Its locks are 134 feet long, 
33 wide, and 5 feet depth of water. The ordinary width of canal 
excavated is seventy-five feet. There are forty-seven locks. 
Twenty-four dams, varying from 5 to 60 feet in height, amounting 
in total length to 15,472 feet; and of excavated canal the total 
length is 16 \ miles. By an official synopsis of the Royal Engineer 
Department, for it, the total expenditure for works (including 
£23,141 6s. lOf d. for gates), was £648,686 13s. 3|d. stg. ; for 
establishment, i. e., management, £110,279 19s. 8d.; total for 
works, not including land damages * £758,966 12s. llfd. stg. ; 
equal to currency, £923,409 Is. 8Jd. 

As the cost of management was rather greater than we would 
feel necessary, we may put the worth of the work for our purpose 
at £900,000 currency. 

Those who have seen the stupendous stone dam, sixty feet in 
height, that was built at Jones' Falls, — the bridge and locks at 
Ottawa, and the 6,024 feet of dam built at Kingston Mills, will be 
satisfied that the magnitude and style of the works are more than 
the utmost we require for our Red River Route. Speaking from 
having served on the Rideau at the time, some of the work, at least, 
was extravagantly paid for ; yet even at that high rate and style of 
work, water communication would cost less in construction than a 
railroad. 

Thus, canalling from Dog Lake to Rainy Lake, 
requiring one-sixth more lockage than the 
Rideau Canal, would cost one-sixth more, or. . . £1,050,000 cy. 
Add Railroad from Lake Superior to Dog Lake, 25 

miles, at £10,000 a mile 250,000 cy. 

£1,300,000 cy. 
Railroad from Fort William to Rainy Lake at 

£10,000 a mile, 180 miles 1,800,000 cy. 

Difference gained by canalling rivers £500,000 cy. 

But as canalling on the scale of the Rideau, with a capacity of 

* I am indebted to Win. Clegg, Esquire, late of that Department, who compiled 
it, for correct information as to these details. 







transport equal to many railroads taken together, would be out of 
all proportion with the one railroad, to be worked in conjunction 
with it, canalling on the small scale of the Erie Canal as first made 
would be quite sufficient for many years. But if the locks were 
made nearly equal to those of the Eideau, say with four feet depth 
of water, and their walls and the dams built of wood, of which the 
supply is said by Mr. Dawson to be abundant, the rate of cost 
might be much under two-thirds of that of the Eideau, making the 
whole cost of the route about £900,000 cy., from Fort William on 
Lake Superior to Eainy Lake, or half the cost of a railway between 
the same points. 

The top timbers over water only, would, say after ten years, 
require repair, those under water would not decay. A railroad 
would be useless until completed through. The water communi- 
cation would be serviceable in the meantime, with the improve- 
ments already commenced; and its usefulness would be increased 
as the works advanced. 



CHAPTER XXIX. 

COMPARISON OF KNOWN ROUTES TO RED RIVER. 

Having considered the character of the Dog Lake Eoute, now 
under improvement, and the capacity of that part of it from Stur- 
geon Lake westward, as a separate route, in connexion with a rail- 
road from Fort William to it, and also the Seine route, we can now 
compare them with other known or proposed routes to Eed Eiver 
Settlement. 

For that purpose, the routes described are exhibited in the fol- 
lowing table, together with the route by Chicago and St. Paul's, and 
a proposed route by Superior City and Crow Wing, in Minnesota, 
and also a practicable direct railroad line, by the valley of the Ot- 
tawa and Montreal Eiver, and thence westward through the interior. 






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135 



To form a comparative estimate of the value of these routes, for 
the transport of heavy freight, we may apply to them the following 
rates of transport, per ton, per mile, given by Mr. McAlpine in his 
report on the canals of the State of New York, which are considered 
of high authority by Engineers : 

On the Lakes, long voyage 2 mills. 

Do. short do 3 to '4 mills. 

St. Lawrence and Mississippi 3 

Tributaries, Mississippi 5 to 10 mills. 

Canals, Erie enlargement 4 " 

Other canals but shorter 5 to 6 " 

Erie Canal, ordinary size 5 " 

Canals with great lockage 6 to 8 " 

Eailroads transporting coal 6 to 10 " 

Do. not for coal, favorable grades and lines. 12 J 

Do. steep grades 15 to 25 " 

These rates include nothing for tolls on canals, or to cover cost 
of construction of railroads. Mr. Jervis, in his report on the pro- 
posed Caughnawaga Canal, says the actual cost of transporting a 
ton of freight from Ogdensburg to Eouse's Point, on the railroad, 
by the report of the State Engineer, was 11 and 7-10 mills a mile, 
allowing no profit on capital expended in construction. 

How much more would have to be added, in the form of tolls 
on the canalled rivers, or additional rates on railroads, to cover the 
costs of construction, no practical man would like to say, without 
deliberate estimation, based on specific survey. But we may 
safely assume, that on the improved river reaches, where there 
was little lockage, it would be small, compared with what it 
would be on a railroad, especially if wooden dams and locks 
were used, and that on the great central reach of Eainy Lake and 
Eiver, and the Lake of the Woods, it would be next to nothing. 

We have to bear in mind also, in judging of the comparative 
value of these routes, that where railroads are proposed to be 
used, in connexion with reaches of water communication, their 
usefulness, in that way, will be limited to the period of open navi- 
gation, and that therefore their usefulness in winter, which under 
ordinary circumstances gives them a great advantage over canals, 
cannot be reckoned in their favor in this comparison. 

Applying the foregoing rates to the approximate table of lengths, 
we have the bare cost of moving a ton of goods from Montreal to 
Eed Eiver Settlement, by the respective routes, as follows : 

By the Grand Trunk and other railways, via Chicago and St. 
Paul's, if railway communication were completed from St. Paul's 
530 miles to Fort Gariy : 

1,767 miles of railway transport at 12J mills 
a ton, per mile...... ,.,.. $22.09 









136 

By proposed direct route up the Ottawa and 
Montreal River valleys and through the 
interior to Fort Garry — 

1,110 miles, at 12* mills a ton, per mile $13.87 

257 " at 15 " on account of 

probable steeper grades 3.86 

1,367 $17.73 

By proposed route of railway from Fort Wil- 
liam to Sturgeon Lake, canalling Sturgeon 
and Nameaukan Rivers to Rainy Lake, 
and railroad from the Lake of the Woods 
to Fort Garry — 
442 miles by rail from Montreal to Colling- 
wood, at 12 \ mills a ton, per mile.... $ 5.52 
534 miles by the Lakes to Fort William, at 2 

mills a ton, per mile 1.07 

122 miles by rail to Sturgeon Lake, at 15 

mills a ton, per mile 1.83 

226 miles River and Lake navigation, at 4 

mills a ton, per mile ... 0.90 

100 miles railway, Lake of the Woods to 

Fort Garry, at 12 J mills a ton per mile 1.25 

1,424 $10.57 

It will be at once seen that as there is so much Lake and other 
natural navigation on this last route, the additional charges to cover 
" costs of construction" on it must be small, compared with either 
of the preceding. 

By proposed Railway route from Superior City to Crow Wing, 
through Minnesota, and thence to Fort Garry if constructed : 

442 miles by rail to Collingwood, 

548 miles Superior City to Fort Garry. 

990 miles "at 12J mills $12.3-7 

654 miles by Lakes from Collingwood to 

Superior Dity> at 2 mills 1.31 

1,644 $13.68 



By proposed route by Dog Lake and River 
Seine, if canalled through from Dog 
Lake to Rainy Lake — 

442 miles rail to Collingwood $ 5.52 

534 miles Lakes to Fort William 1.07 

25 miles rail to Dog Lake, at 20 mills, on 

account of steeper grades 0.50 



137 

358 miles Eiver and Lakes from Dog Lake 
to end of north-west arm of Lake of 
the Woods, at 4 mills 1.43 

100 miles rail to Fort Garry, at 12-|- mills... 1.25 



$ 9.77 



1,459 miles. 
If 100 miles of canal were made from the Lake of 
the Woods to Fort Garry, instead of railway, there 
would he a reduction of 55 cents a ton, reducing 

the above to $ 9.22 

And the cost by Sturgeon Lake route to 10.02 

As already mentioned, these rates are very far from showing 
the total cost of transport on canals and railroads ; but being 
adopted by Engineers as indicating the bare cost of movement of 
freight, they may be considered as sufficient to enable us to form 
a general idea of the comparative advantage that the routes- 
respectively offer, as ultimate highways for the transport of heavy 
freight to and from our interior territories. 

The difference shown by them in favor of the routes through 
our own territory, is such as to warrant our believing that they 
possess that advantage in a greater degree than any other known 
routes. 



CHAPTEE XXX. 

DIRECT RAILROAD ROUTE TO RED RIVER BY THE VALLEY OF THE 

OTTAWA. 

The probability of a direct railroad route being found by the 
valley of the Ottawa, to Eed Eiver, has been to a great degree con- 
firmed, as already mentioned, by the recent survey of the Montreal 
Eiver, a tributary which joins the Ottawa in Lake Temiscaming. 

This route for a railway to the Pacific was, I believe, first pro- 
posed by Col. Carmichael Smith, probably from information ob- 
tained from officers of the Hudson's Bay Company. 

From Pembroke, the contemplated termination of the Brockville 
and Ottawa Piailroad, there is a favorable site for it along the Ot- 
tawa to the Matawan, though the soil is there generally too poor 
for settlement. It might, with little loss of distance, be carried 
more to the West, through the interior, where the land is not so 
unfavorable for cultivation. 

Beyond this, the best ground would be found, alike for the road 







138 



and settlement, by passing near the head of the Matawan, and 
thence directly to the Montreal River, about two hundred and 
eighty-rive miles by this route from the City of Ottawa. 

Thence, north-westward about ninety-nine miles by a very direct 
and highly favorable course, along the Montreal Eiver, over a flat 
country, suitable for settlement for two-thirds of the distance, to 
the north elbow of that river, and the northern extremity, in lat. 
48° K, of the long lake that receives it, to the water-shed ; imme- 
diately beyond which commences the level clay country, which 
extends to Hudson's Bay. 

Thence, in a west-north-west course, in the edge of the clay 
country, say a hundred and twelve miles, including sinuosities, to 
the meridian of the termination of Provincial Surveyor D. Sinclair's 
west line, run from the Montreal Eiver. 

So far the country is now known ; the level clay country, which 
is here twenty miles north of Mr. Sinclair's line, continues north- 
westward ; how far is not definitely known. This nearly direct 
line proposed would pass fifty or sixty miles north of the termina- 
tion of Mr. Sinclair's line ; his line is a hundred and five miles in 
length. It lies altogether in a country which, though presenting 
no serious obstacle to the passing of a railway line through it, is 
exceedingly poor, sandy and rocky soil, unfit for cultivation. The 
clay country north of it is at least superior in that respect. It is 
worthy of remark here, that New Brunswick House, where Mr. 
Gladman resided, and describes the cultivation of grain, including 
wheat, to have been successful, lies about a hundred and ten miles 
northward, and a little to the west of the termination of Mr. Sin- 
clair's line, which is from thirty to forty miles north of the water- 
shed, from which the branches of Moose t Eiver descend towards 
Hudson's Bay. Our proposed line would therefore be about ninety 
miles north of the water-sheti here. 

From the meridian of the termination of Mr. Sinclair's line, to 
long. 86° W., a hundred and sixty-eight miles, and even to long. 
88° W., a hundred and eight miles further westward, including one- 
fifth for sinuosities, Ave have but little knowledge of the country 
over which our direct route would pass. Strictly speaking, a straight 
line from Montreal to Fort Garry, would touch the northerly bays 
of Lake Superior, near Pic Island ; and the country along the shore 
of the lake is well known to be mountainous and unsuitable for a 
railway line ; but as it is known that the country behind is more 
favorable, and as the length of the line would not be increased in 
any appreciable degree by carrying it forty miles further north, but 
on the contrary probably oe slightly diminished, by having much 
fewer minor sinuosities, from being in better ground, it is assumed 
that our route would be carried there. 







139 






What little we do know is definite and favorable ; the line would 
be situated nearly altogether, if not quite so, in the level clay 
country, north of the height of land, on waters flowing to Hudson's 
Bay, till it approaches Lake Nipigon, near long. 88° W. 

This character of the country, which has long been well known 
to the officers of the Hudson's Bay Company, and has been con- 
firmed as far as recent surveys of the northerly waters of the 
Ottawa have extended, is referred to by Provincial Surveyor Herric, 
in his report of his exploratory survey, in the country north of 
Lake Superior. 

He says : " From inquiries made amongst the Indians, as well as 
from the officers of the Hudson's Bay Company who have travelled 
much through the country, I am informed, that after from thirty to 
fifty miles of hilly country, round Lake Superior, is passed, a level 
country is reached, which extends from the height of land, between 
Lake Superior and the Bed Biver Settlement, east, for several hun- 
dred miles and along the north of the sources of the tributaries of 
the Ottawa. If, then, at any future period it may be proposed to 
connect Canada with the Bed Biver Settlement by railroad, it does 
not appear that much difficulty will be experienced on this part of 
the route." The same description of the intervening country has 
long been given by officers of the Hudson's Bay Company, stationed 
on the northern waters of the Ottawa. 

Passing south of Lake Mpigon, and crossing the Biver jSTipigon 
at 18 miles from long. 88° W., difficulty would be encountered on 
this line from the rugged and hilly nature of the country, but from 
the character of the valleys no doubt a fair passage could be 
obtained. 

Before proceeding further we may notice a few facts as to the 
elevation of the country. 

The ridge of maximum elevation, between Lake Huron and 
Hudson's Bay, is a continuation of the anticlinal axis which tra- 
verses Lake Temiscaming on the Ottawa, at the mouth of the 
Montreal Biver, about lat. 47° 07' N". It continues westward, a 
little to the north of that parallel, till approaching Lake Superior 
it turns up towards Michipicoten. Mr. Murray, the Asst. Prov. 
Geologist, traced the waters of the Sturgeon Biver of Lake Mpis- 
sing, and the Wahnapetec, which flows to Lake Huron, up to an 
elevation of more than 930 feet above the level of the sea, with 
lofty hills to the northward rising 700 feet higher, or 1,630 feet 
above the sea. 

From this high range the head waters of Moose Biver, as ascer- 
tained by recent survey, flow northward to Hudson's Bay, and 
even the Montreal Biver flows from it northward to near lat. 48° 
X., whence it turns abruptly and flows southward a hundred miles 
to Lake Temiscaming. 










So much does the country fall to the northward of this range, 
that the height of land, between Lac La Quinze on the Ottawa, 
above Lake Temiscaming, and the tributaries of Hudson's Bay, 
is scarcely fifty feet higher than the surface of the main Ottawa, 
or only about 830 above the level of the sea;* and it is over a 
similar low level that the proposed line of railway, by the valley 
of the Ottawa and Montreal River, passes the Lauren tides, and 
enters the level clay country of the north. 

Traversing the branches of Moose River from forty to ninety 
miles north of their sources, which are in the high range mentioned,, 
the line would still be in a comparatively low country. In long. 
87° W., it would cross a branch of the Albany River on Hudson's 
Bay, which has its source within six miles of Lake Superior ; so 
near does the trough of Hudson's Bay there approach the lake. 

Passing south of Lake Mpigon it would be again necessary ta 
enter the trough of the St. Lawrence, but at no great elevation, 
Lake Mpigon being only four hundred feet above Lake Superior. 

Lake Mpigon is the last and the most romantic of the lakes of 
the St. Lawrence. By the highly interesting though brief report 
of Mr. Armstrong, it is ninety-five miles long and sixty -five miles 
wide, but full of islands. Its south end is about fifty miles north 
from Mpigon Bay. 

Towards Lake Superior the mountains or high grounds rise to a 
thousand feet above that lake ; at the south end of Lake Mpigon 
they are noted as being less elevated, and there is much good land 
in the valleys. 

From the River Mpigon, a hundred and ninety-three miles 
westward, to the meridian of the south end of Lac Seul, little is 
known of the country through which a direct route would pass. 

As to the elevation of the water-shed to be traversed, we may 
safely assume that it is no higher than Prairie Portage on the 
Savanne River route, which is 887 feet above Lake Superior ; for 
the western feeder of Lake Mpigon, and the Fire Steel River, a 
branch of the Seine, head together in the same water-shed a little 
north of Prairie Portage. 

As a general characteristic, the country is known to become 
lower and more even northward from the high ground towards 
Lake Superior. 

From the meridian of Lac Seul westward, to the outlet of the 
Lake of the Woods, a hundred and thirty-four miles, the ground 
over which the direct route would pass is reported, by those who 
know it, to be of such a nature as to present no important obsta- 
cles of .elevation, though the lakes to be avoided would cause 

* Survey of the Upper Ottawa from Lac La Quinze to Grand Lac, and of Lac 
Abbitibbi and Canoe Route connecting them, by Prov. Surveyor L. Russell. 










increased sinuosity, and the roughness of the surface might give 
increased expense in grading. 

From the outlet of the Lake of the Woods, to the west end of 
the part of it called Lac Platte, forty miles, the ground is known 
to "be such as to admit of a fair line of railway being found 
through it. 

Thence to Fort Garry, a hundred miles, including sinuosities, 
the country, as already described, is unusually favorable for the 
construction of a railway. 

The foregoing detailed distances make a total of thirteen hun- 
dred and sixty-seven miles from Montreal to Fort Garry, by this 
direct route. 

The total length, by the distances given, of the part of it passing 
through unsurveyed country, between the northerly extremity of 
the waters of the Montreal Eiver, a tributary of the Ottawa, and 
the west end of Lac Platte, a part of the Lake of the Woods, is 773 
miles, while the direct distance, on the line of the route, is by cal- 
culation by meridians, 650f , the difference being the allowance for 
sinuosities on the straight line assumed. 

Great extents of this line will be comparatively level, and will 
.afford favorable grades. The least favorable parts in that respect 
will probably be found in the valley of the Ottawa, within the 
distance to which lumbering operations and surveys extend, and 
where we have sufficient knowledge to be sure that a fair line of 
railroad can be carried, notwithstanding. 

In the unsurveyed region before mentioned, the greatest diffi- 
culty will probably be encountered between the Eiver Mpigon and 
Lac Seul, in the rise to the water-shed; but that is necessarily less 
than five hundred feet, or not more than will be met on the Inter- 
colonial Eailway before getting twenty miles from the St. Law- 
rence. 

These details are gone into so fully because it is not generally 
known that we have a favorable and most direct route to Eed 
Eiver, shorter than any other possibly can be. It is in a position 
that is rendered exceedingly unassailable by the rugged moun- 
tainous country in front of it, and by the lakes, forests and exten- 
sive marshes, to the westward, between it and the frontier ; so 
much so that an invading force, of any considerable strength, would 
take more time to move twenty miles in the intervening country 
than to advance two hundred in the prairies beyond it. 

Therefore, if we do not have a railway through our own territory 
to Eed Eiver, it certainly will not be because we have not a 
favorable route for it, but for want of sufficient inducement or 
necessity for making it. 

This is of some importance ; and it is desirable that the fact 
should be known, that when the making of it becomes a national 










142 

requirement, for the purposes . of defence or commerce, we com- 
mand the best and shortest railway route to the interior and to the 
Pacific. 

The level clay country of the north, through which this route 
passes, seemingly for four hundred miles, presents, as yet, no in- 
ducement whatever for opening it up. But when the navigation 
of the Ottawa is improved as far as the Matawan, two hundred 
miles above the capital, a comparatively small expenditure will 
carry it a hundred miles further, to the head of Lake Temisca- 
ming. This will entirely change the prospect of settlement, not 
only of the good lands there, but also eventually of the clay country 
beyond it, should the soil of that great extent, of entirely arable 
land, prove as capable of improvement by cultivation as other clay 
soils are. 

To be safe, we must reserve our judgment on the subject till 
more ample information, carefully collected, is before us. But 
this much we know, that clay soils, though stubborn and hard to 
cultivate in extremely dry or wet weather, are in the end the 
most rich and durable ; and that tracts where grain can be raised, 
if well watered, generally become occupied, when land becomes 
valuable by the increase of population and the progress of improve- 
ment. 

The period may be remote when such causes will operate in 
this particular region, but when we consider that, apart from its 
own requirements under such advanced circumstances, it offers a 
railway route to Eed Eiver and the Pacific four hundred miles 
shorter for winter travel than any other yet known to be prac- 
ticable, in view of the vast development of improvements during 
the term of the past generation, it would really not be irrational 
to suppose that this route may be opened before the lapse of 
another. 

This will appear the more reasonable when we consider that 
this route would traverse the most habitable part of this Territory 
south of Hudson's Bay, which, as before stated, is larger, and appa- 
rently fully as suitable for cultivation as Finland, that sustains 
nearly two millions of inhabitants ; and that Lake Superior, and 
Lake Temiscaming on the Ottawa, are the only possible outlets for 
the best part of this territory, which would be opened up in the 
most favorable manner by this proposed route, and placed by it in 
immediate connection with Lake Temiscaming. 

It is difficult to conceive that a country fully equal to Finland, 
with the great water system of the Ottawa leading directly to it, 
should remain for ever valueless and uninhabited. 



143 



CHAPTEK XXXI. 

ROUTE TO THE PACIFIC THROUGH BRITISH COLUMBIA. 

The subject of communication with the Pacific, through British 
Columbia, is more immediately and urgently important than the 
preceding. 

It is the opinion of many, that if it be of any importance that. 
Great Britain, the greatest commercial power in the world, should 
have a highway to the Pacific, for commercial and other purposes,, 
through her own territory, one that could not be barred against her 
by any other power ; if it be desirable that the solid freedom of 
British institutions should be maintained on this continent ; and 
if the fair programme of national life, in close connexion with the 
mother country, set forth in the British North America Act, is to be 
realized, and this edifice of Confederated British Dominion is to be 
anything more than a temporary expedient, the Confederation 
should be completed by the addition of Vancouver's Island and 
British Columbia, and the opening of a line of commmunication 
with them, without delay. 

Looking to the interest of the Central Prairie Country alone, as 
British territory, when inhabited, it is as important for it to have 
a way to the Pacific without being exposed to all the conceivable 
disadvantages of having its means of communication controlled by 
a foreign power, and, under very possible circumstances, a hostile 
one, as it is for us to have communication through our own territory 
with the Atlantic. 

To render the comparison a fair one, we must conceive what it 
would be if there were no St. Lawrence, and we were dependent on 
land transport alone. 

It is unnecessary to follow the line of evidence adopted by 
philosophical writers, showing that the importance and prosperity 
of civilized countries is limited by their extent of frontage on seas 
open to commerce ; it is demonstrated in the history of nations,, 
and the importance of that advantage is acknowledged in their 
struggles to obtain it. 

But whatever power may in future hold British Columbia, a 
free outlet through it is of the greatest importance to the prosperity 
of our interior teritory adjoining it; and would have a powerful 
influence in encouraging settlement there, and in ensuring its 
success. 

It would be to our advantage, as well as to its own, and also 
greatly to the advantage of British Columbia, that the interior 



144 

prairie country should be a prosperous one; and its prosperity 
would be very much restricted if its commerce were limited to 
the St. Lawrence and Mississippi. It would be a great drawback 
for it to have its teas and other products of Eastern Asia and the 
Pacific imported by routes so circuitous, or to be obstructed in 
exporting its own products to that ocean. 

It will assist us in judging of the importance of a route through 
British Columbia, if we compare the distance by it from the 
Upper Sasketchewan to the Pacific, with what it would be by the 
Bed Eiver and Mississippi to St. Louis, and thence by the Pacific 
railroad to San Francisco, now in progress, and which might be 
supposed to be in some degree useful to our territory. 

By the practically good route, though necessarily tortuous one, 
through a mountainous country, described by Mr. Waddington, 
(from personal exploration,) in his valuable pamphlet on the 
subject, the distance, from Edmonton on the north Saskatchewan, 
to the head of Bute Inlet, a port on the waters of the Pacific, is 
•841 miles, of which 389 are navigable waters. By substituting 
his shorter railway route for the navigable water, the distance 
would be 654 miles. 

By St. Louis and the Pacific Eailroad the distance would be 
1,060 miles from Edmonton to Port Garry, 532 to St. Paul's, 817 
to Omaha, thence to San Francisco 2,032 miles, (by U.S. Sec. 
at War's Beport) ; in all 4,442 miles, or 3,601 miles longer to the 
Pacific than the route through British Columbia, or possibly 3,788. 

Supposing even that Gov. Stevens' northern route, by the Mis- 
souri in lat. 47° N., were opened and 600 miles of road were made 
to join it at the Bocky Mountains, that is at 750 miles from the 
Pacific, the total distance would be 1,350 miles against 654 through 
British Columbia by rail. 

Even from Fort Garry on Bed Biver, the difference would be 
nearly the same on comparison, for we have 1,060 from Fort 
Garry to Edmonton by water, and 645 further to Bute Inlet by 
rail, against 532 miles to St. Paul's, and 1,864 thence to the 
Pacific, by Gov. Stevens' line, making 2,396 miles by it, against 
1,705 by Edmonton to Bute Inlet, the latter being 691 miles 
•shorter. 

Very little reflection will be sufficient to enable us to see what 
a powerful inducement the opening of such a route through 
British Columbia would be, even if at first imperfectly, for the 
encouragement of settlement in our central prairie country, with 
the certainty there would be of its being completed as a line of 
railroad. Instead of being in an isolated " Cut de Sac " the set- 
tlers on the Saskatchewan would have the assurance of being, 
before long, on one of the great highways of the world's com- 
merce. 



1 






145 

The route advocated by Mr. Waddington, through the interior, 
by the valley of the North Saskatchewan, the Eiver Athabasca 
and the Yellow Head or Leather Pass to the upper Fraser Eiver, 
and descending it to its tributary, the Quesnelle Eiver, and from 
it across to Bute Inlet, is unquestionably by far the best as regards 
this side of the Eocky Mountains, and the passage through them; 
and there is no room to doubt its being so also to the westward 
through British Columbia. 

The Leather Pass was long known and used by the Hudson's 
Bay Company. It is singular that Capt. Palliser, Dr. Hector and 
Capt. Blackiston, were never informed of it. The advantageous 
nature of it, however, was made apparent in 1862 by the passage 
of a party of a hundred and fifty Canadian emigrants, including a 
woman and three children. They gathered at Fort Garry in June, 
and got through to the settlements on the Fraser Eiver in good 
time. They took through with them about seventy horses and a 
hundred and thirty oxen, excepting such of the latter as they killed 
or sold by the way. So gentle was the ascent, that they did not 
know that they had passed the ridge of the Eocky Mountains, till 
they found the waters flowing westward. Lord Milton and Dr. 
Cheadle, also, in their journal say, of this pass, that they had uncon- 
sciously passed the height of land, and that until they had the evi- 
dence of the water flow, they had no suspicion that they were even 
near the dividing ridge. 

The height of the summit of this pass, which is in lat. 52°54' N.-; 
is given by Mr. Waddington as 3,760 feet over the sea, being nearly 
the same level as the elevated sloping plain, on the east side, from 
which the Eocky Mountains rise. 

The elevation of the other generally known passes are as fol- 
lows : — Howse Pass, 6,347; Kicking Horse Pass, 5,420; Vermi- 
lion, 4,944; Kanauski Pass, (recommended by Captain Palliser, 
but requiring a tunnel,) 4,600 ; British Kootanie Pass, near U. S. 
Boundary, 5,960 feet above the sea. This last is recommended by 
Captain Blackiston, who thought he was the first white man that 
had entered it. Mr. David Thompson, Astronomer of the North- 
West Company, in his manuscript journal, now before me, gives 
interesting accounts of his exploratory journeys through this and 
other passes of the Eocky Mountains, occasionally with horses, 
about the beginning of this century. 

In the U. S. Secretary at War's Eeport on the Pacific Eailway 
lines, the elevation of the passes through the Eocky Mountains in 
the United States are given as follows : Eoute near lat. 47° and 
49° N, 6,044 feet; at lat. 41° and 42° N, 8,373 feet ; at lat. 38° 
and 39° N, 10,032 feet; lat. 35° N, 7,472 feet; at lat. 32° N., 
5,717 feet above the sea; and the extent of land generally unfit 
10 



146 

for cultivation on these routes, is given, in the above succession, as 
1,490, 1,400, 1,460 ,1,476 and 1,210 miles respectively, or about two 
thirds of their length. 

On our route by the North Saskatchewan and Yellow Head 
Pass, we have a continuously and pre-eminently fertile country for 
1,300, from the commencement of the Red River prairies to the 
base of the Rocky Mountains at Jasper House ; and of the remain- 
ing 761 miles to the head of Bute Inlet, nearly one-half apparently 
is cultivable land. Mr. Waddington's description of the country, 
between the mouth of Quesnelle River and the coast range, agrees 
with the favorable account of that plateau quoted from Mr. Barn- 
• ston's report in Commander Mayne's work on British Columbia ; 
and the unusual favorable character, in that very mountainous 
country, which he gives of the great region extending northward to 
the River Skeena, the boundary of British Columbia, corresponds 
with the description given of parts of it intersected, in reports of 
extensive explorations referred to in the same work, and published 
in Imperial Parliamentary papers. 

We see, therefore, that we possess a route to the Pacific, through 
our central prairie country and British Columbia, that besides 
traversing the Rocky Mountains far more favorably, at half the 
elevation of the lines through the United States, is as remarkable 
for passing through a great extent of well watered fertile country, 
as they are for the general aridity and uninhabitable barrenness 
of a great part of the country they traverse. 

The superiority of our route across to the Pacific, over any other 
on the continent, is still more evident, when we consider that it 
has, in addition to the foregoing, the further advantage of consisting 
chiefly of navigable waters. 

This advantage is, in its nature, a double one. First, the much 
lower rate of cost of transport by the navigable waters, where on 
a large scale, like the St. Lawrence and its lakes, and even much of 
the interior lake and river navigation ; secondly, what to us is of 
great importance, especially in the commencement, that in the 
navigable waters we have the greater part of the route ready, 
without cost of construction, except on a very small proportion of it. 

Taking the route, No. 4, in the foregoing table, in connexion 
with that advocated by Mr. Waddington, we would have, with the 
improvements mentioned, between Lake Superior and Red River, 
226 miles (out of 448 J) of continuous navigation, on a large scale 
for inland waters, and 1,060 from Fort Garry to Edmonton of a 
similar class, by Lake Winnipeg and the Saskatchewan, requiring 
lockage, or short portages, only at three places on the latter. Be- 
tween Edmonton and Port Waddington, on Bute inlet, a harbour of a 
the Pacific, Mr. Waddington counts 309 miles of steamboat navi- * 



147 

gation; making in all 1,595 miles of steamboat navigation, and only 
754£ miles of land travel or railroad, in tlie whole distance of 
2,349 J miles by this route from .Lake Superior to the Pacific. 

If the railway route proposed by Mr. Waddington were adopted, 
instead of the navigation of Fraser River, in part, reducing the 
distance from Bute Inlet to Edmonton to 654 miles, and if 825 
miles of railway were made from Edmonton to Fort Garry, the total 
distance from the Pacific to Lake Superior would be reduced to 
1,927J miles ; which with 976 miles to Montreal, via Collingwood, 
and 843 to Halifax, would give a total distance from that city to 
the Pacific of 3,746 J miles. 

If a line of railroad throughout were ultimately required, to 
ensure rapid communication at all seasons, we could have from 
Bute Inlet to Edmonton, 654 miles, and to Fort Garry, 825 more, 
and then the direct route, No. 1, of the table, from Fort Garry to 
Montreal, by the Ottawa, 1,367 miles, making 2,846 from the 
Pacific to Montreal ; which, with 843 to Halifax, would make a 
total from the Pacific of 3,689 miles, to which adding the distance 
to Liverpool, 2,467, would give a total from the Pacific to Liverpool 
of 6,156 miles. 

By the Eeport of United States Secretary at War, already 
referred to, the distances from New York to the Pacific are, to 
Council Bluffs, at the mouth of the River Platte, 1,252 miles; 
thence, to the Pacific by the railroad now in progress on both sides 
of the Rocky Mountains, and nearly made to them, 2,032 miles, 
making together 3,284 miles, to which add, from Liverpool to New 
York, 3,073, gives a total by this line of 6,357 miles, or 201 more 
than the route through British America. 



CHAPTER XXXII. 

IMPORTANCE TO BRITISH COLUMBIA OF UNION AND INTERIOR 
COMMUNICATION WITH THE DOMINION. 

AVere British Columbia united to the Dominion, and an adequate 
line of communication opened through that Province from Lake 
Superior to the Pacific, all the commerce of the vast interior of 
British America, with the Pacific and Eastern Asia, and the carry- 
ing trade of it on the high seas, would be drawn to her ports ; and 
her route across the continent would be a successful rival of the 
Pacific Railway from San Francisco, not only for traffic and com- 
munication between the Pacific and the present Provinces of Canada, 
and parts of the United States adj oining, but also for that of Euro- 
pean countries through this continent. The great proportion of 



148 

water conveyance on our route, would render transport by it so 
much more economical, as to admit of freight being carried of kinds 
that could not be sent by the San Francisco route, on account of 
the greater expense of transport entirely by railroad. 

Our route through British Columbia would have the advantage 
also of being shorter to China and Japan ; the distance from any 
port in these countries to Bute Inlet being upwards of 550 miles 
less than to San Francisco. This is best seen by measurement on 
a terrestrial globe ; for the ordinary projections of the hemispheres 
in charts and atlases give rise to a very erroneous idea as to dis- 
tances between the continents. 

Taking this 550 miles into account, the distance from any port 
in China or Japan to Liverpool would be 751 miles shorter by our 
route, through British Columbia, than by the American Pacific 
Bailroad. 

United to the Dominion, British Columbia would enjoy these 
advantages in relation to the interior, and communication through 
it, which would be lost to her by annexation to the United States. 
If the Americans held British Columbia, they would be little dis- 
posed to use it for the purpose of establishing a line of communi- 
cation, nearly altogether through British territory, to rival their 
own Pacific Bailroad, and carry trade to Canadian ports. 

In this respect, British Columbia, including Vancouver's Island 
with it, and Nova Scotia, are in a great degree similarly situated, 
in relation to the interior of British America and its development ; 
and the similarity goes further, for they are much alike in some 
other respects. They are both comparatively rather unfavorable 
generally for cultivation, but on the other hand possess alike ex- 
traordinary advantages for commerce and manufactures, in their 
favorable maritime position and numerous harbours, their metals 
and their coal beds. 

With these advantages, and situated on the eastern and western 
outlets of the great fertile interior of British America, it seems 
reasonable to say that they are in a position to enjoy, in the greatest 
degree, every advantage in the extension of their commerce and 
increased employment for their shipping and manufactures, to be 
derived from the development of the resources of the interior, and 
the opening of a line of communication through it from the Atlantic 
to the Pacific. 

In position with relation to the interior, however, it must be 
admitted, that British Columbia surpasses Nova Scotia and New 
Brunswick, the coast of the continent, southward from it, not being 
studded with rival ports and harbours, reaching close in towards 
the interior like the Atlantic coast. In the command of communi- 
cation from the Pacific to the interior, British Columbia has no 
competitor. 



149 

IMPORTANCE OF THE OTTAWA SHIP CANAL TO THESE NORTH- 
WEST TERRITORIES, &c. 

To judge correctly of the ultimate advantage which a route 
through our own territories presents, alike as a means of communi- 
cation with them and through them to the Pacific, and in view of 
the superiority which the greater economy of water transport gives 
us in the comparison, we should take into account the reduction of 
distance and of cost which the improvement of our inland naviga- 
tion may afford. 

As presenting the greatest prospective advantage in that respect, 
the proposed improvement of the Ottawa and French Eivers, or 
what is called the construction of the Ottawa Ship Canal, may be 
referred to. 

It may be sufficient to remind the reader, that in the distance 
by this route of four hundred and thirty miles from Montreal to 
Lake Huron, canalling for 21-| miles only is required, in addition 
to the Lachine Canal already constructed, according to the report of 
Mr. Thos. C. Clarke, who completed the survey of it for Govern- 
ment ; and that according to the report of Mr. W. Shanly, his pre- 
decessor in charge, the cost of movement of freight per ton, from 
Chicago to Montreal, by the Ottawa Ship Canal, would be $2 89, 
while by the St. Lawrence and Welland Canal route, and by the 
Toronto and Georgian Bay Canal, it would be $3 26 and $3 27 
respectively; that the distances by the two latter routes would be 
1,348 and 1,050 miles, but by the Ottawa only 973, that is, 375 
miles shorter than the St. Lawrence and Welland route now used. 

It is proper to observe that the reduction of distance by it to 
Lake Superior, and consequently to the interior and the Pacific, is 
40 miles greater than to Lake Michigan, or 415 miles. 

Apart from the advantages claimed for it of being the most 
favorable route for the trade of what has hitherto been designated 
the " Great West," and for attracting it to Canadian ports, and 
as vastly increasing the strength of the Provinces as a work of 
defence, the Ottawa Ship Canal, inasmuch as it would diminish 
the distance and the cost of transport, especially of heavy freight, 
to and from our interior territories, would tend to remove the 
greatest drawback to the successful settlement of them. It would 
benefit Lower Canada, now the Province of Quebec, in a manner 
that no other work would do, for it would, in connexion with Lake 
Temiscaming, and the navigable waters of its tributary, the Eiver 
Blanche, develope the south-western frontier of that province for 
four hundred and fifty miles, and render available the considerable 
extent of country fit for settlement at the head of that lake, which 
is now too remote ; and it would facilitate communication with 
Hudson's Bay, and through the country south of it to Pied Paver, 
as already mentioned, were that ultimately found desirable. 



150 



CHAPTER XXXIII. 

THE INTERESTS OF CANADA, THE HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY AND 

THE INDIANS. 

We are at issue with the Hudson's Bay Company. We deny 
the justice and validity of their title to the territory most valuable 
to us — the Central Prairie Country — claimed by them under their 
Charter from King Charles the Second, in 1670, granting them 
the exclusive right of trade in Hudson's Bay and its waters, and 
all the lands and territories on their " Confines" not " possessed by 
the subjects of any other Christian Prince or State." 

Far from giving the Hudson's Bay Company the interior coun- 
try on the Bed River and the Saskatchewa, their Charter, restricted 
by this exception, did not even give them that part of the coast of 
Hudson's Bay in front of it. 

These regions were commonly known as French territory, and 
were virtually recognized as such by the Treaty of St. Germains 
en Laye, of 1632, which restored to the King of France Canada or* 
" La Nouvelle France,* of which they formed part ; — and they had 
already, in 1627, been chartered to " La Compagnie de la Nouvelle 
France." 

The occupation of Hudson's Bay by the French before the date 
of the Hudson's Bay Company's Charter is unquestionable, for not 
only had their trade been established there in 1656 and 1663, by 
Jean Bourdon and La Couture, and Missions been planted in the 
interior, but it is also historically notorious that the Hudson's Bay 
Company originated in two disaffected Canadians, who had been 
engaged in the trade of the Bay (De Grozelier and Badison), 
inducing English adventurers to join them in a trading voyage 
there* the success of which led to the formation of the Hudson's 
Bay Company and the granting of its Charter in 1670. 

After a protracted struggle the Hudson's Bay Company's people 
were, in 1686, expelled as trespassers from the posts they had 
established in the Bay. The justice of this expulsion and the prior 
rightful possession of France is acknowledged in the treaty of Bys- 
wick, of 1697, which provides for the restitution to France of these 
posts in particular, as well as of all others taken in the war then 
terminated, that had formerly belonged to France. 

Therefore, without entering into the seemingly well grounded 
objections made, by able legists, to the fundamentally illegal char- 
acter of that Charter, we see that in simple equity, (though that 

* See Charlevoix, Vol. 1, p. 476. 



151 

may probably be disregarded) King Charles could not give — and 
by the exception evidently did not intend to give — the Company 
all the territory they now claim, simply because it was not his to 
give. 

We see also that the completeness of the title given by the 
Charter is vitiated by an exception well grounded on known 
fact, — a fact affirmed and sustained by the high authority of 
international treaty ; and that, therefore, the Hudson's Bay Com- 
pany would probably, under it, be unable, in a Court of Law, to 
prove perfect title, as required, for the ejectment of adverse pos- 
sessors. 

Previous to the cession of Canada, Canadian traders had long- 
been in undisputed possession of the interior country now in dis- 
pute — holding there the forts of Maurepas on Lake Winnipeg, Fort 
Kouge on Eed Eiver, De la Peine, on Lake Manitoba, and Forts 
Bourbon, PasquiaB and Mppeween on the Saskatchewan. Under 
the Articles of capitulation of Canada their occupation and pro- 
perty there would be secured to them. After the cession of the 
country, British and Canadians, following in their track, maintained 
the right, by trading there, before and after the Hudson's Bay Com- 
pany entered the same grounds ; — and they continued to do so for 
upwards of forty years before the Hudson's Bay Company asserted 
— and in 1814 first attempted — to enforce their exclusive claim.* 

Then, after the protracted and sanguinary struggle between them 
and the Canadian North- west Company, during which the exclu- 
sive pretensions of either were expressly and carefully ignored by 
the Imperial and Provincial authorities^ — the Hudson's Bay Com- 
pany, finding that they could not enforce their Charter, united 
with the North-west Company, so that they might jointly secure 
the exclusion of all other traders. 

As to the Hudson's Bay Company's claim to the right of soil — 
how can Canada be asked to entertain it ? The soil, with most 
insignificant exception, is still the unalienated property of the 
native Indians. 

* The great explorations of Sir Alexander McKenzie, up to the Arctic Sea and 
through to the Pacific Ocean, and the scarcely less important exploratory surveys 
of David Thompson, after May, 1797, including the discovery and survey of the 
River Columbia and Thompson's River and the surveys of the Arthabasca and 
Peace Rivers, Beaver River and Upper Saskatchewan, and of several passages through 
the Rocky Mountains, were operations of the Canadian North-West Company, of 
whom McKenzie was a leader, and to whom Thompson transferred his services, in 
1799, as stated in his manuscript Journal, after serving the Hudson's Bay Company 
from October, 1789. 

*f* See Earl Bathurst's despatch of 6th February, 1817, enjoining the mainten- 
ance of ' ' the full and free permission for all persons to pursue their usual and 
accustomed trade without hindrance or molestation." 






152 

In Canada, the Mother Country recognized their right by pur- 
chasing their lands and paying annuities for them. Before the 
Union these payments had to be refunded to the Imperial Govern- 
ment by Upper Canada. These annuities are now paid directly 
by the Canadian Goverment, 

Seeing, therefore, that we have to pay for all lands acquired for 
us, or by us, from Indians, are we to be compelled to recognize 
the right of the Hudson's Bay Company to lands they never pur- 
chased or paid for ? And is it consistent with that justice to the 
Aborigines, which we hear so much spoken about in England, 
that, in acquiring their lands, instead of paying them the whole 
price, we are to give part of it to the Hudson's Bay Company, — 
who never acquired any right to it from the owners ? * 

The grounds of claim to the territory in dispute are too obscure, 
hypothetical and conflicting, to be conclusive in favor of either 
Canada or the Company : it is for the Crown, in whom the 
absolute right still remains, to deal with it as it sees fit. 

Besides that of the native Indians, the only indefeasible right is 
that of mankind to have the obstruction to its lawful occupation 
by settlers removed. All that the Company can justly be entitled 
to is indemnity for any injury to their trade which settlement may 
occasion, when it takes place. 

That, in the large portion of prairie land nearest to us, which is 
exhausted as a fur-bearing country, must be comparatively little. 

In considering this question, we have to bear in mind that it is 
only such part of the territory, sending waters to Hudson's Bay, 
as their Charter may, under the restricting exception be found to 
cover, that the Company can have any permanent right to : — the 
remainder of the territory they occupy, they held merely tempo- 
rarily by lease, on the termination of which their rights become 
extint, without claim to indemnity. 

We claim that the Ked Kiver and Saskatchewan country comes 
under the latter description. We should therefore avoid being- 
led into calling it Eupert's Land, for as that was the name given 
by King Charles to the land he gave the Company, we in a man- 
ner admit the Bed Biver and Saskatchewan Country to be the 
property of the Company if we call it Eupert's Land. 

But though our interests are opposed to theirs as to territorial 
right, we should be careful to be just to the Company, and con- 
sider well the particulars in which their interests and ours may 



* I am led to make these remarks from its having been my duty, for seven 
years, to keep the accounts of these transactions, between the Imperial Com- 
missariat, the Local Government, and the Indian Department. 



153 

We must acknowledge that their admirable system, good ma- 
nagement and good faith in dealing with the Indians, are highly 
creditable to them, and have maintained tranquillity in the vast 
territories under their sway, and peace on our borders, and respect 
for the British name and power in the minds of the natives ; and 
that their officers and agents are proverbially honourable men. 

If the Company were broken up and their officers withdrawn 
from these territories, and the trade of them thrown open to all, 
it might, no doubt, give a few enterprising men in Canada the 
opportunity of seeking, probably with some success, to amass 
wealth like that of the old North- West Company of Montreal. 
But when the irregular, and too often unscrupulous trading of 
the adventurers was substituted for the well regulated and reliable 
system of the Hudson's Bay Company, it would probably have, 
with the free use of spirits that would no doubt attend it, a most 
injurious and demoralizing effect upon the Indians ; and coupled 
with the many causes of provocation accompanying the advance 
of settlement, would, almost certainly, lead to difficulties and 
border warfare with them, as in the adjoining States. 

It would therefore probably be better, on the whole, that the fur 
trade of these territories should remain in the hands of the Hud- 
son's Bay Company, under lease from the Dominion, especially if 
such an arrangement gave Canada more favourable terms in 
settlement with the Company. The importance of economy 
effected in this way will be seen when it is considered that it 
might be sufficient to defray the expense of opening a serviceable 
line of communication for the ingress of settlers. 

Or it might be better for the Goverment of the Dominion to 
step into the shoes of the Company, and continue the trade, 
through the agents and others now employed, retaining their 
services by giving them the same interest in the trade as they 
now hold, or equivalent advantage. 

By doing so, Government would have thoroughly competent 
Indian agents throughout the whole of these territories, and by 
maintaining the same policy of* management as heretofore, would 
prevent an important influence over the native tribes from being 
impaired or falling into foreign hands, and could use it for the 
preservation of that tranquillity which would be doubly necessary 
in the face of advancing settlement. 

If we have to buy the improvements or business stands of the 
Company, it would be reasonable to turn them to some account; 
and the abrupt withdrawal of that trade on which the natives now 
depend for ammunition and other things, now become necessaries 
to them, would be a calamity to the Indians, which it would be 
the duty of Canada, in extending her dominion over them, to avert. 






154 

The exclusive reservation of the fur trade in the hands of 
■Government, for the good of all, would be less obnoxious than its 
being held by a company. It would enable Government to check 
the use of spirits in the trade. The agents might be useful in 
allaying difficulties and watching over the feelings of the natives 
and their movements, as well as their interests and wants; but 
there are, no doubt, some obvious objections to the trade being carried 
on by Government. 

But whatever the arrangements as to trade may be, the security 
of settlement will lie in good faith with the Indians, in all arrange- 
ments with them being honorably and liberally maintained. With 
ultimate advantage to ourselves we might even exceed that. Were 
the Government of the Dominion, on acquiring these territories, or 
any paTt of them, to establish in the settlements, asylums, at a 
few points, for the helpless and infirm, and orphans of such tribes 
as any arrangement as to territory or otherwise was made with; 
-and were it also provided that any Indian of any such tribe might, 
at any time forever thereafter and anywhere, obtain a free grant of 
two hundred acres of land, on his choosing to become a settler, as 
an inalienable homestead, and be entitled to admission into any 
hospital, or to medical assistance in case of illness or injury, to be 
paid for by Government on the certificate of any, magistrate, a 
strong and favorable impression would be made on the feelings of 
the Indians. The Indian would have it constantly before him that 
if he became helpless there was a home ever ready for him under 
the roof of the Dominion. 

The liability to expense which this would entail may be objected 
to, but when it is considered how little this exceeds what Christian 
charity would dictate, under such circumstances, and the small 
number of the Indians, — the benefit to them and the moral influence 
in our favor, — the liability of cost may be found moderate com- 
pared with the general advantage obtained. 

By adopting such a system of attaching the Indians, and either 
obtaining the cordial co-operation of the Hudson's Bay Company, 
by duly considering their interest, or otherwise by occupying their 
place, which would be still more effective, the security of orderly 
settlement, on just principles, would be provided for, and the 
strength of the Indian nations would be knit to ours for common 
defence if necessary, at less cost in the end than by bad faith and 
aggression and bloody wars with them. 



155 



CHAPTER XXXIV. 

COMPARATIVE VALUE OF THE SEVERAL TERRITORIES TO CANADA, 
AND CONCLUSION. 

Having passed in review the Hudson's Bay and North-West 
Territories, in naturally distinct sections, we may now consider 
which, or how many of them we may require ; and in what degree 
they are respectively of value to us. 

First and chiefly, as generally admitted, and for reasons already 
shown, we want the central prairie country on the Eed River, 
Saskatchewan, Athabasca and Peace Rivers, as a favorable site for 
the immediate extension of settlement and reception of European 
immigration. We see that it much exceeds Canada in extent, that 
it has on an average as suitable a climate for agricultural occupation ; 
while it greatly exceeds Canada in the proportion of arable land it 
contains ; much of which is of the richest quality known. 

The next in value to us, though very much inferior to the pre- 
ceding, is that here described as the South Hudson's Bay Territory, 
or that part of it, at least, up to the line of latitude 52° 30' X. from 
a little above the mouth of the Albany River, on Hudson's Bay, 
across to Lake Winnipeg. It is a habitable country, with much 
fertile arable land, admitting of the cultivation of coarse grains in 
the north, and, as we have seen, is as suitable, in some of the south 
parts of it, for the growth of wheat, as Lower Canada. We require 
it in connection with the preceding, because the southern part of it 
contains the best lines of communication with Red River, and 
which being chiefly by water, are the most advantageous for the 
heavy freight of the interior; and also because through it we can 
have a most direct and favorable line of railroad to Red River and 
the Pacific. 

Xext, but in a lesser degree, the Pelly River or Mountain 
Country would be valuable to us ; chiefly as a defence. Were it 
in the hands of a power owning the seaboard, with strongholds in 
commanding positions, at the eastern outlets of the passes through 
it, our central prairie country would be exposed to being, at any 
time, suddenly overrun. But with that three hundred and fifty 
miles in breadth of Alpine country occupied by our fur traders, 
with posts on all the leading passes, and " couriers du bois " and 
trappers scattered over it, in friendly communication with the 
natives, an enemy, without foothold, on attempting to pass, in 
such insignificant force as it would under such circumstances be 
practicable to lead, would easily be detected and destroyed before 
having made much way ; or if by extraordinary fortune they did 






156 

pass unnoticed, the result to such small force as could so pass, would 
he as disastrous as Arnold's attempt on Canada hy the valley of 
the Chaudiere. 

The valleys of the Pelly Eiver and Mountain Country will seem- 
ingly admit of the cultivation of coarse grains, and cattle feeding, 
throughout its whole extent, and it is a valuable fish and fur yield- 
ing country. 

East Main and the remainder of what is here designated as 
South Hudson's Bay Territory, might be valuable to us for their 
seal fisheries and fur trade ; and the McKenzie Elver country for 
its furs and minerals, and for the navigable highway to the most 
valuable of Arctic whale fisheries, which that river offers ; but 
these territories are of little value to us compared with the first 
three mentioned — all of which are habitable countries, the first 
eminently so. As to the North Hudson's Bay, or Barren Ground 
Territory, it seems to have no conceivable value. 

South Hudson's Bay Territory and the Pelly Eiver or Mountain 
Country, though unsuitable for occupation by our present standard 
of estimation, will undoubtedly become inhabited. European 
countries, not more suitable, are occupied by civilized and enlight- 
ened nations, and have acquired considerable political and com- 
mercial importance. 



157 



CONCLUSION. 

Some will argue that, in desiring to acquire the North-west 
Territory, we allow our ambition to override our judgment ; that 
the organizing of it, and the maintenance of jurisdiction over it, 
are a task beyond the ability of Canada ; that it is absurd to incur 
expense in the development of remote territories, while we have 
already so much waste land, requiring the making of more roads 
than we are able to accomplish for the opening of it, to say nothing 
of the canals and railroads nearer home, which all admit to be 
desirable for the prosperity of the country. 

One might argue interminably in this manner ; but there is a 
shorter and a surer way to a conclusion in this matter. We have 
only to look south of us, and see what has been done by the people 
there. 

We see that they acquired territory after territory, in the face 
of obstacles that we have not to encounter. 

When they were far weaker than we are, instead of acquiring 
territories in the easy way that we may do, they had to tight for 
them. They had to combat fierce and powerful tribes, backed by 
the power of France ; but still they extended their frontier. 

When they entered on the career of national existence, they 
were but three millions ; but we are four. And then, in addition to 
continual wars with the Indians, they had to fight with the mother 
country, once and again, in wars ruinously expensive to them. But 
that did not prevent their continuing to extend their jurisdiction 
over vast territories, which they acquired from European Powers, 
and had to fight for afterwards. 

They had indeed vast regions nearer home of unsettled lands, 
requiring roads and other improvements to open them up, while 
we in fact have comparatively none of great value ; but instead 
of the extension of their dominion leading them to neglect im- 
provements in their older states, the very reverse seems to be the 
case. 

Who will say that the acquisition and development of their 
western territories, which one after the other have grown into 
thriving and populous states, has retarded the prosperity of their 
older eastern states and cities ? On the contrary, we find them re- 
markable for their works and improvements; and what is more, we 
find them enriched by their manufactures for the markets of the 
western territories, which they acquired and developed into power- 






158 

ful states, and that their chief seaports are swollen with the com- 
merce arising from them. 

Now, Ave are not only greater than they were in population, but 
also exceed them in a much greater degree in wealth, and in the 
command of wealth unknown to them, in their beginnings. We 
have no Indian wars; and instead of their expensive wars with the 
mother country, we enjoy her powerful protection and pecuniary 
assistance, and have the immense additional advantage of steam 
and railroads in our favor. 

With all these advantages, it is evidently preposterous to say, 
that it is beyond our power to do what they did, unless we adopt 
the plea that we are intrinsically so inferior to the people of the 
United States, in capacity, energy and patriotism, that with every 
advantage in our favor, and obstacles removed which they had to 
encounter, we have neither the courage nor ability to imitate their 
successful example. 

But some will say, what is the real good of aspiring to national 
power and greatness ? The answer is a simple one. Men in 
general are what the institutions of their country make them. The 
security of these institutions depends on the power of the people to 
defend them. Civil liberty depends upon political independence, 
and that, it is needless to say, depends on the power to maintain it. 
Where would have been the civil liberty of England had she suc- 
cumbed to the Armada, or the stability of her institutions had she 
been conquered by France under Napoleon? 

The mother country has placed in our hands the national banner, 
and the institutions of which it is the symbol, under which she has 
attained her pre-eminent, moral and material greatness; the 
standard of responsible constitutional government and law-abiding 
liberty ; and she expects us, with her assistance, and for our own 
good, to maintain it, and them, honorably, over these broad 
dominions of which she endows us with the inheritance. May 
there be no failure on our part through short-sighted unpatriotic 
pusillanimity. 



REPORT 



LINE OF ROUTE BETWEEN LAKE SUPEEIOE 



AND 



THEIRED RIVER SETTLEMENT 









Ottawa, 20th April, 1868. 

Sir, — I have the honor herewith to submit to your consideration 
a Eeport on the Line of Eoute between Lake Superior and the Eed 
Eiver Settlement, with an Estimate of the cost of opening the com- 
munication in the manner therein suggested. 

I have the honor to be, sir, 

Your most obedient servant, 

(Signed,) S. J. Dawson, 

Hon. Wm. McDougall, C.B., Civil Engineer. 

Minister of Public Works, &c, &c, 
Ottawa. 






REPORT 

ON 

THE LINE OF ROUTE 

BETWEEN 

LAKE SUPEKIOK AND THE BED ETVEE SETTLEMENT. 



In reporting as to the best means of opening a line of commu- 
nication between Lake Superior and the Eed Eiver Settlement, I 
beg to be permitted, in the first place, to refer briefly to the opera- 
tions of the Eed Eiver Expedition, carried on for several years 
under my direction, as it will, I doubt not, be satisfactory to the 
Government to know that the suggestions which I have the honor 
to submit are not the expression of mere theoretical views, but the 
result of long-continued investigation, under official instructions 
from the Canadian Government. 

The earlier Eeports of the Expedition were printed by order of 
the Legislature, but those sent in during the last year of its opera- 
tions have never ^been published. The present Eeport will contain 
all that is believed to be of immediate importance in these docu- 
ments ; that is, in regard to the subject under consideration. 

The following Maps are annexed for convenience of reference : — 

T. A Plan, on a scale of two miles to one inch, showing the 
country between Thunder Bay and Lac des Mille Lacs, Dog Lake 
line of road, position of dam, &c. 

2. A Plan of the Lake Eegion, on a scale of four miles to one 
inch, showing the country between the Height of Land and Eort 
Frances. 

3. A Plan on a scale of ten miles to one inch, showing the 
country between Fort Frances and Fort Garry. 

4. A Map, in profile, showing the relative altitude of the Eoutes 
by Pigeon Eiver and the Kaministaquia. 

Plan No. 3 might be lithographed at small cost, and I think it 
would be advisable to have it published, as it is the only correct one 
of the section which it exhibits. 

The Eed Eiver Expedition consisted at its outset of three dis- 
tinct parties, receiving their instructions from three different De- 
partments of Government. One of these was under my direction, 
one under Mr. Napier's, while Mr. Gladman, a retired officer of the 
11 






162 



Hudson's Bay Company, who had the guidance of the Expedition 
on the journey to Eed Eiver, had a separate party of his own. 

The parties thus organized set out in July, 1857, and proceeding 
by the usual canoe route from Fort William, made numerous ex- 
plorations, determined the levels as they went, and eventually 
arrived at the Eed Eiver Settlement in the fall of the same year. 

Mr. Gladman, after a short stay, returned by the way he had 
come to Toronto, where his connection with the Expedition soon 
afterwards ceased, while Professor Hind, who I should have men- 
tioned had been attached to the party as geologist, proceeded by 
way of the Eed Eiver over the prairies to St. Paul. 

My assistants at this time were Mr. Lindsay A. Eussell, Mr. J. 
E. Gaudet, Mr. Alex. W. Wells and Col. C. de Salaberry. The 
three first-named gentlemen were surveyors, all of whom are of 
high standing in their profession, while Col. de Salaberry acted 
chiefly as Commissary — an important office in a region where pro- 
visions were not always very abundant. 

The winter of 1857-58 was chiefly occupied in exploring the 
country between the Lake of the Woods and Eed Eiver, a region 
at that time but little known, and reported to be impassable in 
summer, on account of swamps which were said to cover the greater 
portion of its area. At the same time, an instrumental survey was 
made, so as to connect Fort Garry with the survey made many 
years previously by the Boundary Commissioners, under the treaty 
of Ghent. This enabled us to establish with accuracy the longi- 
tude of Fort Garry, which, on the maps then in use, was set down 
as much as twenty-one minutes too far to the west. 

The party were also able, before the opening of navigation, to 
explore the Eosseau Eiver and make an instrumental survey of the 
Eed Eiver and Lake Winnipeg, between Fort Alexander, at the 
mouth of the Winnepeg Eiver, and the Boundary Line at Pembina. 

Immediately after the opening of the navigation, having organ- 
ized a party of half-breed Indians and procured canoes, we pro- 
ceeded by way of the Manitoba and Winnepegoos Lakes to the 
great Saskatchewan Eiver, and examined the rapids and impedi- 
ments to the navigation between Lac Bourbon and Lake Winnipeg. 
The levels were determined with care, and the " Track Survey" 
which we had made of the Lake Coasts, as we proceeded, was 
corrected as often as possible by observations for latitude and 
longitude. 

Separating our party at the Mossy Portage, the name by which 
the path between Lake Winnepegoos and Lac Bourbon is called, I 
sent Mr. Wells to explore Lac Dauphin and survey the route by 
way of the Little Saskatchewan and Lake Winnepeg to the mouth 
of the Eed Eiver, appointing the 1st of July following to meet him 
at the settlement. 



163 

Taking with me my assistants, Mr. Gaudet, and Mr. de Salaberry, 
and a few Indians, I ascended Swan Eiver, crossed from thence to 
Fort Pelly, and descended by the Assiniboine to Fort Garry, having 
on this excursion obtained much information, as to the soil and 
climate of a very extensive district, and made such observations as 
enabled us to delineate its geography with tolerable accuracy. 

Throughout the entire period during which our head quarters 
were at the Eed Eiver Settlement, a Meteorological Eegister was 
kept, regularly, under the supervision of Mr. Eussell, and it has 
since been of considerable value, as, taken in connection with some 
reliable observations made by others, it has served not a little to 
dispel the absurd ideas which at one time prevailed in regard to 
the severity of the climate and the duration of the winters. 

On the 4th of July, 1858, our party was once more assembled 
at the Eed Eiver Settlement, and having with some difficulty pro- 
cured supplies, we set out, with all possible dispatch, for a more 
thorough exploration of the country between Eainy Lake and Lake 
Superior. Among the instructions received from the Government 
at this time were the following : — 

" Secretary's Office, 

"Toronto, 16th April, 1858. 

" Sir, — Adverting to the last paragraph in my letter to you this 
day, I have the honor to inform you, that it is not thought necessary 
to make any alterations in the instructions for your future opera- 
tions, contained in the Order in Council of 29th January last. 

" You will therefore consider these instructions, so far as your 
explorations are concerned, still in force. 

" I am to add, however, that if time allows it, you will endeavor 
to survey the road between Gun Flint Lake and Pointe de Meuron, 
and when returning from the North-west Corner of the Lake of the 
Woods and passing through Eainy Lake, make occasional traverses 
when practicable, with a view to ascertain the extent of arable land 
in that locality. 

" I am further to state that His Excellency, having every con- 
fidence in your judgment, does not think it right to trammel your 
movements by detailed instructions, and that you are therefore at 
liberty to make any other explorations in addition to those particu- 
larly mentioned in the instructions already conveyed to you, should 
you, upon the information obtained in the locality, deem it desirable 
you should do so. 

" I have the honor to be, Sir, 

" Your obedient servant, 
(Signed,) " T. J. J. Loranger, 

" S. J. Dawson, Esq., * " Secretary." 

" Civil Engineer in command, 

" of the Eed Eiver Expedition." 



164 

From that time forward, for the remainder of the season, and 
during the winter of 1858-59, our explorations were confined chiefly, 
I may say exclusively, to the country between Rainy Lake and 
Lake Superior. Two well appointed parties were kept constantly 
at work, and sometimes three. Instrumental surveys were carried 
from Lake Superior, westward, through Dog Lake, Dog Eiver, Lac 
des Mille Lacs and the Seine, to within a short distance of Rainy 
Lake. The levels were taken from Jourdain's Rapid to Dog Lake, 
and from that Lake across, by the line laid out as a road, to Lake 
Superior. 

In the spring of 1859, having learned that a party fitted out by 
the people of Red River, who at that time took a great deal of 
interest in promoting the development of the country, had been 
baffled in an attempt to take horses through to the Lake of the 
Woods, had in fact got bewildered in swamps, from which they had 
experienced much difficulty in extricating themselves, and as the 
impression as to that section of the country being impracticable for 
roads was thus gaining confirmation, I hastened to the Lake of the 
Woods, with the most active of my assistants, and proceeding to its 
western extremity had the good fortune to secure the services of an 
Indian Chief, who undertook to show us ground on which the 
country could be crossed. 

Leaving my assistants to find their way across with the Chief, I 
proceeded by way of the Winnipeg to the Red River Settlement, 
where I had not long to wait for their arrival. They reported that 
the Chief had led them to a gravelly ridge which extended, with 
but few breaks, for a long distance across the most swampy parts 
of the country, and that the remains of Indian encampments showed 
that it had been much used as a pathway, in times long past. 

A number of men were immediately engaged in the Settlement 
and sent to open the line which had been traced, in such a way as 
to render it passable for horses ; and over this line our party rode 
clear through to the Lake of the Woods, on horseback. 

The line thus opened was used afterwards as a Post road for the 
conveyance of Mails on horseback, and it requires but slight know- 
ledge of engineering to understand that ground, over which horses 
can be ridden, is not so swampy as to be impracticable for roads. 

Returning again to Rainy Lake, we made a more thorough 
examination of the Lakes, by the old canoe route, than we had 
previously had an opportunity of doing, and the result led me to 
the conclusion that, considering the long reaches of navigable water 
on that route, it could be rendered available, in the first instance, 
to greater advantage and at less outlay than the line by the Seine, 
w T hich had been examined and reported on the previous year. 

Arriving at Lake Superior, I was joined by my assistant, Mr. 






165 

Wells, who had spent the whole summer in examining the country 
about the Height of Land and Lac des Mille Lacs. The fall being 
now far advanced, the parties were gradually withdrawn, such of 
them as we had left at the Lake of the Woods returning only in the 
beginning of November. 

To sum up, the explorations and surveys were thus continued, un- 
interruptedly, for three summers and two winters. There were gene- 
rally three well-appointed parties simultaneously at work, in differ- 
ent sections, and, Avhether at Lake Superior or the Lake of the W'oods 
— the one a swampy and the other a hilly region — they always 
availed themselves of the aid of the natives, whose occupation of 
hunting, pursued from youth to age, within particular areas, rendered 
their local knowledge of the greatest value. 

A considerable period of time has now elapsed since the oper- 
ations of the Eed Eiver expedition were brought to a close, and 
since that time there has been no further exploration whatever in 
the country between Lake Superior and the Eed Eiver Settlement, 
so that such of our preliminary Eeports as have been published are 
the only sources of information generally available. 

Having thus briefly alluded to the surveys and explorations 
made by me, or under my direction, I proceed to describe the dif- 
ferent sections of the country in detail, pointing out, as concisely as 
possible, the works and improvements required, and the reasons 
for adopting particular lines of route or starting points. 

For the sakcof convenience, in description, the country between 
Lake Superior and the Eed Eiver Settlement may properly be 
regarded as forming four divisions. 

The first, embracing the region to the east of the water-shed, or 
Height of Land, will be referred to as the " Lake Superior Section." 

The next, extending from the Height of Land to Fort Frances, 
I propose to designate as the "Lake Region." 

The navigable reach, extending from Fort Frances to the north- 
west angle of the Lake of the Woods, will be called the " Lake of 
the Woods Division."' 

While that between the north-west angle and the Eed Eiver 
Settlement may not inappropriately be known as the " Fort Garry 
Section." 



LAKE SUPERIOR SECTION. 

The country between the Boundary Line, at Pigeon Eiver, and 
the head or eastern end of Thunder Bay, was carefully examined 
with the view of finding a practical route from Lake Superior to 






1G6 



some one of the water systems leading from the Height of Land, 
westward, to Rainy Lake. 

On all the routes, proposed or suggested, I had at various times 
during the progress of the expedition, reported to the Government, 
so that, here, I need only state the leading advantages or objections 
which attach, respectively, to each. 

THE PIGEON RIVER ROUTE. 

The nature of this route, and the objections to it, will be found 
pretty fully stated in my preliminary reports, printed by order of 
the Legislature. — Pages 7 and 27. 

The starting point is entirely within the United States territory, 
and, for a distance of one hundred and fifty miles, the canoe route 
forms the Boundary Line. But this is far from being the only ob- 
jection. The ascent from Lake Superior is very rapid and steep, 
and at the Height of Land, and far to the westward thereof, the 
route leads over a very high and broken region. The lakes at the 
summit of the water-shed are 1,058 feet above the level of Lake 
Superior, and, even at that elevation, are embosomed in rocky hills 
which rise to the height of several hundreds of feet around them. 
Moreover, the supply of water is so inadequate as to forbid the idea 
of improving the navigation, and there is no source from whence a 
supply can be obtained. The route itself is at the summit of 
supply, and touches in its course on the head waters of no less than 
four different rivers. 

Between Pigeon River and the Ka minis taquia, there are several 
good harbours on the coast, but from these access to the interior 
would be exceedingly difficult, and could only be provided at 
enormous outlay. 

It was at one time suggested that a practicable line might be 
found by which to cross the country from Pointe de Meuron, so 
as to join the Pigeon River Route, to the westward of the Height of 
Land. This point I was instructed to investigate, and accordingly 
despatched Mr. L. A. Russell, with a well-appointed party, to 
explore in the direction which had been indicated He ran a line 
from Pointe de Meuron to Gun Flint Lake, a distance of some fifty- 
four miles, and examined the ground on either side thereof, but his 
report and field notes show that the country which he traversed 
was too rough and impracticable to admit of an available line of 
communication. 

In concluding my notice of this route, I may say that, for a 
distance of one hundred and thirty miles from Lake Superior, west- 
ward, it cannot be made in any way available as a line of water 
communication, except for small canoes ; that the country being 
for a great part of the distance rugged, mountainous and cut up 



167 

with lakes, it is next to impracticable for roads, and, finally, that 
there being a much better route to the eastward, entirely within 
British territory, there would be no object in attempting to open 
this line, or spending further sums in its exploration. 

KAMINISTAQUIA ROUTE. 

This is the old canoe route of the North-west and Hudson's Bay 
Companies. On this line the supply of water is ample, and the 
elevation of the country at the summit of the water-shed less, by 
some two hundred feet, than on the Pigeon Eiver Boute, while it is 
at the same time, that is, at the turn of the water-shed, compar- 
atively level and practicable for roads. Dog Lake, a large sheet of 
water on the Kaministaquia, twenty-four miles inland from Lake 
Superior, extends for a distance of some twenty miles in a direction 
nearly parallel to the western coast of Thunder Bay. To the west- 
ward of this lake, the principal stream which supplies it with water 
— Dog Biver — can be made navigable nearly to the Height of Land 
(and it will be so when a dam now in progress of construction is 
completed), so that, between river and lake, an available reach of 
some thirty-five miles could be commanded. It became, therefore, 
a matter of importance to find access to this navigable reach, and 
with this end in view, the levels of the Kaministaquia were 
determined, and the country between Dog Lake and Lake Superior 
explored. 

Dog Lake was found to be at an elevation of 718 feet above the 
level of Lake Superior, and the intervening country proved to be 
extremely mountainous and rough, while the difficulties by water 
were of a still more formidable character. 

The Kaministaquia, after leaving Dog Lake, runs nearly south 
to its confluence with Fish Biver, then eastwardly to Bointe de 
Meuron, and thence north-east to its discharge, making a sweep of 
sixty miles before it reaches Lake Superior ; and as it has in that 
distance to get down a declivity of 718 feet, its character, in regard 
to its capacity for navigation, may be easily imagined. It affords, 
however, an available, although a difficult route for canoes ; but, for 
large craft, it could only be made navigable at an outlay which no 
circumstances likely to arise would warrant. 

A land road to Dog Lake, therefore, became indispensable, and, 
after much careful investigation and exploration, an available pass 
was found and a line laid out, and on this line during the past 
summer a fair commencement was made, and six miles of road, 
reckoning from Thunder Bay, completed. 

The starting point is at a place called the Depot, on Thunder 
Bay, about three miles to the eastward of the mouth of the Kamin- 






168 

■ 

istaquia, and at this point there is, in my opinion, every facility 
for constructing wharves and forming a perfectly safe harbour. 

The Kaministaquia, itself, has been strongly recommended as 
a harbour, but, in its present state, it is inaccessible to vessels draw- 
ing more than five and a half feet of water, on account of a bar or 
shoal of great extent at its mouth. Its adoption would involve the 
dredging of a channel, and the construction of extensive piers or 
walls of heavy crib work, on either side thereof, to prevent it from 
being filled up by the action of the ice which, at certain seasons, 
ploughs over the bar. Another consideration, which should not be 
lost sight of, is that the causes which produced the shoal are still in 
operation. Quantities of sediment are brought down with every 
freshet, more especially in the spring, and the dredging would have 
to be repeated at intervals to keep the channel, once formed, open. 

Everything considered, therefore, I would not for the present 
recommend the Government to undertake the dredging of the Kam- 
inistaquia, and the construction of extensive works to keep the 
channel so formed from filling up. The first great object is to open 
the communication with Fort Garry ; and, when that is accom- 
plished, there will be no lack of means, from private sources, or of 
enterprise, to render the Kaministaquia an accessible harbour. In 
the meantime, it might seriously affect the enterprise if large sums 
w T ere to be expended at its very outset on merely local works. 

Fort William is, however, even at present, accessible to the 
smaller class of schooners or fishing vessels which navigate Lake 
Superior. It is, besides, a place of importance as being the centre 
of such trade as is carried on, and it will gradually become of in- 
creased consequence, as the mines in the vicinity are developed, 
and the fertile portion of the valley of the Kaministaquia fills up 
with settlement. For these reasons, it is expedient to connect it 
by a branch line with the Dog Lake Eoad, as shown on the accom- 
panying plan, and for this purpose I have included a sum of seven 
thousand dollars ($7,000) in the estimate, which I have now the 
honor to submit. 

Before concluding this subject, I would call attention to the fact 
that many persons who take a deep interest in that part of the 
country are under the impression that by going up the Kaminista- 
quia to Pointe de Meuron, or as far as the navigable water extends 
— a distance of some ten or twelve miles — the length of land road, 
which would then be required to reach Dog Lake, would be by so 
much shortened. But this is a mistake. Pointe de Meuron is, in 
an air line, somewhat further than either Fort William or the 
Depot from Dog Lake, and there would, consequently, be no object 
in taking cargoes up a narrow channel to a point which brought 
them no nearer to their destination. The branch line should, there- 



169 

fore, start from Fort William and not from Pointe de Meiiron. 
From the former place the Dog Lake Eoad can be reached in six or 
seven miles, while, from the latter, ten at least would be required, 
with corresponding increase in the outlay. A glance at the map 
will show clearly what I have endeavoured to explain. 

It has been objected to the Depot as a starting point, that it is 
shelterless, and that the ice will tear away any wharves that can be 
built. 

Xow, on reference to the map, it will be seen that Thunder Bay 
is itself a harbour, although of somewhat large dimensions, com- 
pletely land-locked and sheltered from every wind; any swell 
therefore, which can be felt must arise within the Bay itself. The 
huge surges of Lake Superior do not roll into it at all, and it may 
be regarded for all practical purposes, in relation to the subject 
under consideration, as an inland lake. Looking upon it in this 
light, the starting point at the Depot is in a Bay of moderate depth,, 
completely sheltered from the prevailing winds, which are westerly. 
A glance at the map will show that it is safe from winds blowing 
from the west, south-west, north and north-west; and, I may add, 
that a wind blowing from a direction fifteen or twenty points to 
the east of north, would not affect it. East, or south-easterly winds, 
alone, would blow in upon the harbour, but the extent of their 
sweep would be limited to the width of Thunder Bay, and the surge 
which could arise in that distance may easily be guarded against. 
That the swell hair no great effect in Thunder Bay, at any time, is 
demonstrated by the fact, that the trees crow clear down almost to 
the level of the water, indeed, in some places, dipping their branches 
into it ; whereas, in exposed parts of Lake Superior, the wave-lashed ' 
shores are destitute of vegetation. 

It has been said, moreover, that the ice would carry wharves 
away, and, as convincing proof of this, a boulder was pointed out 
to me which had been shoved ashore by the ice. I merely notice 
tins to show the sort of arguments which have been advanced to 
disparage Thunder Bay and promote the Kaministaquia. If 
wharves cannot stand in the tranquil waters of a land-locked bay 
they can stand nowhere, and those who object to them in Thunder 
Bay, on the score of ice, can have had but little experience of such 
a river as the St. Lawrence, where wharves are built to resist ice 
rushing against them in immense fields, with the full force of the 
spring floods, as is the case at Three Eivers when Lake St. Peter is 
breaking up. 

Among the advantages which the Depot at Thunder Bay pos- 
sesses, may be mentioned the facility of approach or departure 
to sailing vessels, as they would have ample sea-room to beat in or 
out, which they could not have in a narrow river like the Kamin- 



170 

istaquia, with a shoal at its mouth extending a full mile from the 
coast ; and a very important point to be considered is that Thunder 
Bay, as compared to the Kaministaquia, opens earlier in the 
spring and remains open later in the fall. As an instance of this, 
it may be remarked that, in the fall of 1866, when the steamer 
Algoma made her last trip, the Kaministaquia is said to have been 
frozen over, and that so strongly that the people of Fort William 
were skating on the ice. 

From the Depot, eastward along the shore of Thunder Bay, the 
ground for a distance of several miles is practicable for a road, and 
there are facilities for the construction of wharves, in various places, 
more especially at a point a little to the eastward of Current Eiver, 
where there is a small natural harbor, which, by means of piers, 
might be sufficiently extended. 

It was at one time believed that the upper or eastern end of 
Thunder Bay, affording as it does an excellent natural harbor, would 
have been a favorable point from which to run a line of road to 
Dog Lake, but a careful examination showed such a line to be im- 
practicable, within any reasonable limit of expenditure, on account 
of the rugged nature of the country over which it would have had 
to pass. Moreover, to have adopted the head of the bay would 
have increased the distance to be navigated by some forty miles, 
that is, including the addition both in Dog Lake and the bay. 

Referring again to the locality which has been chosen as the 
starting point at Thunder Bay, it is admirably adapted for the 
construction of wharves. The water deepens uniformly and gra- 
dually from the shore, until, at a distance of five hundred feet, it has 
a depth of three fathoms and a half. Timber suitable for the work 
is very abundant on the Kaministaquia, whence it could be easily 
floated down, and on various parts of the shores there is abundance 
of loose stone for filling the piers, and the fixed rock, close at hand, 
is of a nature to be easily blasted. 

At present, it is proposed merely to sink an isolated pier or 
breakwater, at which vessels can discharge their loads, doing in 
fact no more than is necessary to facilitate the landing of material 
and supplies for the works, leaving it to a future consideration 
whether the wharves shall be extended at the public cost, or left to 
private enterprise. 

I conclude this part of the subject by noticing still another 
route which has been advocated, namely : the 

NIPEGOX BAY EOUTE. 

Among the many schemes recommended for opening the North- 
west Territories, the head of this bay has been suggested as a point 



171 

of departure, chiefly on the ground that it affords an excellent harbour, 
and that, by its adoption, the distance to be navigated in Lake 
Superior would be somewhat shortened. 

It is not, however, without its objections, and a conclusive one 
will be found in the fact that it is too far to the eastward of the 
line which it is proposed to open to render its adoption in any way 
expedient It would, in fact, involve at the outset a land, road of 
ninety or a hundred miles to reach the nearest point beyond the 
water-shed, without any compensating advantage. Moreover, Mpe- 
gon Bay, being completely land-locked, is said to be very late of 
opening in the spring, and the access to it is reported to be so intri- 
cate as to require light-houses and beacons to render it safe ; whereas, 
Thunder Bay is remarkably easy of access, and has been for many 
years approached, night and day, without the occurrence of an 
accident. 

I may further state that a road from Mpegon Bay, to connect 
with the proposed line west of the water-shed, would pass over a 
region as yet unexplored, and only known to be exceedingly moun- 
tainous and rough, and as it would run in a direction transverse to 
the valleys, more than one mountain range would have to be crossed 
and several considerable rivers bridged. 



THE LAKE REGION. 

Westward of the Height of Land, on the streams tributary to 
Eainy Lake, there is a section of country remarkable from the fact 
that a very considerable portion of its area is occupied by lakes. 
Those on the various routes which have been followed, are set down 
on the annexed map, but these give only a faint idea of their num- 
ber. Every river and rivulet has its lakes. Go in whatever direc- 
tion he will, the explorer, on passing over a mountain range, is sure 
to stumble on a lake. The Indians, with their little canoes, seem 
by means of these lakes to travel in almost any and every direction. 
So numerous are they, that it would be difficult to say whether the 
country would be better described as one vast lake with ridges of 
land running through it, or as land intersected by water. On as- 
cending any of the bare rocky bluffs frequent in the country, moun- 
tains are seen stretching away in tumultuous and broken ridges to 
the horizon, with lakes gleaming from every valley which the eye 
can reach. 

Such a region is but ill adapted for railways, but nature has 
made up for the deficiency, by providing such means for canals as 
exist in but few regions of so mountainous a character. Between 






172 

the hills and mountain ranges there are long reaches of tranquil 
water which could be connected together by means of lock and 
dam, with but little excavation. The country, however, in its pre- 
sent state, is not in a condition to admit of such projects as either 
railways or canals, but, even if it were, the very primitive and 
moderate way in which I propose to open the communication would 
still be necessary, as a preliminary step, to render the different points 
accessible. 

A very marked characteristic of the region is that the streams. 
are not subject to sudden or considerable floods, and this is a fea- 
ture which the engineer, who has to provide for water-works of 
whatever description, will look upon with unmixed satisfaction. 

This very favorable circumstance is due, primarily, to the lakes 
which serve as reservoirs, rising slowly during freshets, and sub- 
siding gradually when they have passed. It is in part produced 
also by the character of the country, which is, in general, densely 
wooded. 

The rain fall is excessive, and as a consequence the streams 
carry a very heavy volume, as compared to the area which they 
drain. 

The lakes are everywhere studded with wooded islands, and 
so sheltered that the smallest canoes are rarely wind-bound. 

The first considerable sheet of water westward of Height of 
Land, on the route which it is proposed to follow, is 

LAC DES MILLE LACS. 

To render this Lake accessible from Dog Eiver, all that is re- 
quired is a road of ten miles across the water-shed, between Jour- 
dain's Eapid and the navigable water of the Savane Eiver. 

This line would pass over very easy ground, presenting no en- 
gineering difficulty whatever, except for about two miles near the 
Savane Eiver, where the ground is low and swampy, requiring to be 
well ditched and fascined. 

Two routes have been followed from Lac des Mille Lacs to 
Eainy Lake ; one by its discharge, the Eiver Seine, and the other 
by the old canoe route. A description of the former will be found 
in my printed report, pages 28 and 29. Subsequent to the publi- 
cation of that report, the old canoe route, marked in yellow on the 
accompanying plan, was more thoroughly surveyed than it had 
been before. 

Either route can be made practicable in the way I have recom- 
mended for the Seine, at a moderate outlay, but, after weighing duly 
their respective advantages, I am satisfied' that the old canoe route 
will be, both as to economy of work in rendering it available, and 
facility of managing and navigating it afterwards, the best. 






173 



THE CANOE KOUTE. 



The canoe route, to describe it more particularly, leaves Lac des 
Mille Lacs at Baril Bay, by a portage of sixteen chains leading to 
Baril Lake, which is eight miles and a half in length. 

This Lake is again left by the Brule Portage (of twenty-one 
chains), leading to Windegoostegoon — a series of Lakes connected 
by a small stream, and having an aggregate length of twelve miles. 
The water is in some places shallow, but it can easily be rendered 
of sufficient depth. 

Then comes the Great French Portage of one mile and sixty 
chains, the descent in that distance being 99 T Vo feet ; succeeding 
which the Kaogassikok Lake presents an unbroken reach of fifteen 
miles, ending at the Pine Portage. 

Then follow two portages in close succession — the Pine and the 
Deux Rivieres — in length, respectively, twenty-six and thirty chains; 
but a road of two miles, to the navigable water leading to Sturgeon 
Lake, would pass them both, and a small pond between them. 

Sturgeon Lake, with a pond above it, presents sixteen miles of 
navigable water, "but the river below it, for eleven miles downwards 
to Island Portage, makes a descent of 'only 32^% feet; a dam of 
sufficient height at Island Portage would, therefore, add eleven 
miles of navigable water to its length, making a reach of full 
twenty-seven miles. 

Island PortagtTis about thirteen chains in length, with, in its 
present state, a fall of 10 1 -go feet. Immediately below it the Stur- 
geon River is somewhat shallow, but navigable, nevertheless, and 
at two miles from the Portage, ISTequaquon Lake presents a magni- 
ficent expanse, navigable for fifteen miles, making, with the river 

is inlet, a reach of seventeen miles. 

From the Lake just named to the Nameukan Lake, there are 
three routes ; the northern one, by Snake Falls, always followed at 
low water, is considered dangerous, as may be inferred from its 
name, the " Maligne" 

The southern, or high water route, is easy of navigation for 
canoes, the total fall being overcome in three short portages. The 
third, at present only used with light canoes, avoids all the rapids 
by a portage of two miles into Nameukan, as shown on the plan, 
overcoming in that distance a descent of about seventy-two feet. 

Then follows a traverse of ten miles, through Nameukan Lake, 
to the Bare Portage, which is but eleven chains in length, with a 
fall of SjYo feet to Rainy Lake. 

The following table shows the distances, with the fall, at each 
carrying place, in a more concise form : — 






174 



Table showing Portages and Navigable Readies between Height of Land 

and Fort Frances. 



PORTAGES. 


Land C 
Miles. 


arriage 

Chains 


eg 

o£ 
PS 

|.S 

5 


Navigable Branches. 


to 

'> 

a 
to 

1 










Savane River and Lac des 
Mille Lacs Baril Portage 








16 
21 


+ 1.86 
-47.02 

-9.50 
-99.71 

124.12 
(10.06 
J32.50 

72.00 
8.55 


42 
SJ- 






Windegoostegoon Lakes . . 


12" 


Descent in Windegoostegoon lakelets and 








1 
2 

2 


60 
13 

"ii" 


Little: French] Lake and 

Kaogassikok Lake 

Sturgeon Lake and River 

} Nequaquon Lake 




Pine and Deux Rivieres Portages 

Island Portage and Fall, Sturgeon River 
Portage between Nequaquon Lake and 


15 

27 

17 
10 




Rainy Lake and River. . . 
Navigable 


46 










6 


41 


403.46 
1.86 


177^ 


Off + 


6& 










Diff. level between Lac des Mille 


401.60 


184 













Thus, between the head of the Savane Eiver and Fort Frances, 
the extent of navigable water would be one hundred and seventy- 
seven and a-half miles, in eight reaches, divided by seven portages, 
the latter having an aggregate length of six miles and forty-one 
chains ; in round numbers, six miles and a half. At a very little 
outlay, however, over what I am about to propose, the navigable 
reaches could be somewhat extended, and the number of carrying- 
places reduced to five. 

For example, the difference in level between Lac des Mille Lacs 
and Baril Lake is hardly two feet, the latter being so much the 
highest. If, therefore, Lac des Mille Lacs w r ere raised by means of 
a clam to the level of Baril Lake, and a cut made between the two, 
eight miles and a half would be added to the navigable reach of 
Mille Lacs, and one portage done away with. 

In like manner, the difference in level between Nameukan and 
Rainy Lakes is but 8/^ feet, which might be overcome by a wooden 
lock, thus adding some ten miles to the navigable water of Rainy 
Lake, and avoiding another trans-shipment. There would then 
remain only five portages, in a distance of one hundred and eighty- 
four miles — one hundred and seventy-seven and a half miles being 
by water and a little over six by land. On three of the portages, 
averaging about two miles each, horses or oxen would have to be 
maintained, while, on the remaining two, namely : Brule and Island 



175 

Portages, being respectively but twenty-one and thirteen chains in 
length, wooden-ways might be so constructed as to admit of hand- 
cars being drawn over them with facility. I point this out, but 
would not recommend, for the present, either a cut at Baril Lake or 
a lock to connect Nameukan and Eainy Lake. 

The following are the works which I consider of the most 
pressing and immediate importance in this division : 

DAM AT LITTLE FALLS, RIVIERE LA SEINE. 

A dam at this point, if of sufficient height, say forty-two feet, 
would have the effect of raising the wat r of Lac des Mille Lacs to 
a level equal with, or a little higher than Baril Lake, the latter 
being l T 8 o 6 o feet above the level of Mille Lacs; so that, by a mere 
cut, the two could be connected, and, in the event of more exten- 
sive works being undertaken at some future period, it would be no 
small matter to have the water of Mille Lacs at command, for, until 
after passing French Portage, the supply of water on the canoe 
route, although ample for the works now proposed, is not sufficient 
for the more extensive improvements which will doubtless be re- 
quired in the future. 

Among the further advantages of this dam would be the addi- 
tional depth which it would give over an extensive shoal just at the 
mouth of the Savanc Eiver. 

Moreover, in the event of a land road all the way between Lac 
des Mille Lacs and Eainy Lake becoming necessary, a dam at the 
Little Falls would extend the navigable waters of Mille Lacs to a 
distance of seventy miles on Eainy Lake. The construction of such 
a road has been strongly urged by various parties who have mani- 
fested a deep interest in opening the communication, chiefly under 
the idea that it would greatly expedite the conveyance of mails. 

It must be borne in mind, however, that taking into account the 
character of the country, seventy miles of road made in such a way 
as to be really useful, in a region so remote, would cost not less 
than one hundred and twenty thousand dollars. It is therefore a 
matter for consideration whether for the present the less expensive 
way would not be the best, and whether if such a sum, instead of 
being applied to making a road, were expended on the construction 
of locks to extend the navigable reaches, it would not have a better 
effect, even as regards the transport of mails, inasmuch as steamers 
might then be placed to advantage on reaches now too short to 
admit of their being used. 

The situation at the Little Falls is admirably adapted for a dam, 
the river at that point passing through a cut in the rock with high 
rocky banks on either side. To have the desired effect of raising 






176 

the water of Lac des Mille Lacs to the extent of about three feet 
above its present level, the dam would require to be forty-two feet 
in height. Prom a rough estimate by me when on the ground, I 
have set down its cost at twenty thousand dollars. If, however, 
the mere raising of Lac des Mille Lacs were the only object in view, 
it could be attained by a much less costly structure at its immediate 
•outlet. 

Taking the works proposed in their regular order from the Lac 
des Mille Lacs to Eainy Lake, the improvement next required would 
be at 

BARIL PORTAGE. 

This is the portage or carrying place, between Lac des Mille Lacs 
-and Baril Lake, in length sixteen chains, For the present it is 
merely proposed to improve the portage and place a tramway upon 
it for hand-cars. Baril Lake is, as stated, 1 t 8 q 6 feet above the level 
of Mille Lacs, and when the latter is raised by means of the dam 
proposed, a cut might easily be made to connect the two lakes and 
•do away with the portage, as already said. 

BRULE PORTAGE. 

Here, also, it is proposed to place a tramway. The present 
length of the portage is twenty-one chains, but the brook forming 
the discharge of Baril Lake can be so improved as to reduce the 
distance to ten chains. The difference of level between the water 
of Baril Lake and the lower end of the portage is 47 T §^ feet. 

DAM AT HEAD OF FRENCH PORTAGE. 

The effect of this dam would be to raise the water of the Win- 
degoostegoon Lakes, which is in some places shallow, and do away 
with a little rapid where there is a Ml of three feet. The channel, 
where the dam is to be built, is of solid rock, eighty feet in width, 
with rocky banks on each side. The structure would be an ordi- 
nary flat dam, builtfof unhewn timber, and covered in front with 
timbers hewn to six inches, raised to the height of twelve feet, with 
a flood-gate fifteen feet in width, provided with stop logs and the 
means of raising them, in the same manner as at the head gates of 
a slide. A work of this extent would cost in ordinary circum- 
stances about twelve hundred dollars, but considering the remote- 
ness of the situation and the cost of getting men, supplies, etc., I 
have set it down at sixteen hundred dollars. 

FRENCH PORTAGE.' 

This carrying place is one mile and sixty chains in length, and 
the fall from its eastern end to the Little Lake at its western extre- 



177 

mity 90 /jo feet, a difference of level which forbids any attempt to 
encounter the river for the present. There is nothing for it, there- 
fore, but a road, and for this the ground, although somewhat hilly, 
is not unfavorable. French Portage is succeeded by a navigable 
reach of fifteen miles, embracing Kaogassikok Lake and ending at 
Pine Portage. 

PINE PORTAGE AND DEUX RIVIERES PORTAGES. 

These two portages may be considered as one, and have to be 
passed by a land road of two miles, as at French Portage, as the 
river could only be rendered available at an outlay which must 
form a subject for consideration in the future, the fall being 124 T ^ 
feet. At present, a land road, of the required distance (two miles) 
can be made over ground somewhat rough, but on the whole favor- 
able. This road would end at the navigable water leading to 
Sturgeon Lake, and the next work required would be the 

DAM AT ISLAND PORTAGE. 

This is one of the most important works on the whole line of 
route, as its construction would give an unbroken reach of twenty- 
seven miles of navigable water, through the very roughest section 
of the Lake Eegion. Sturgeon Lake, which would form a link in 
this stretch, is sixteen miles in length, navigable throughout. From 
its discharge to Island Portage, the distance is eleven miles, and 
the aggregate fall 32 T 5 V The carrying place is on an island just at 
the brow of a fall of ten feet. Sturgeon Eiver is, at this point, 
three hundred and thirty feet wide, with a bottom of solid rock, 
and rocky banks on either side rising with a moderate ascent. 
Here it is proposed to construct a flat dam of the simplest form, 
but at the same time the strongest; and, in this instance, I see no 
object in going to the expense of making flood gates. The height 
of the dam would be not less than thirty-five feet. The quantity 
of timber used in its construction will reach eighty thousand lineal 
feet, and timber of the finest description, both red and white 
pine, is available; but, considering the remoteness of the locality, 
its cost, built into the work, cannot be reckoned at less than seven- 
teen cents per foot, equal to fourteen thousand four hundred 
dollars, add to which for filling, &c, three thousand six hundred 
dollars, making eighteen thousand dollars, as set down in the 
estimate. 

DAMS AT NEQUAQUON. 

Immediately below Island Portage, Sturgeon Eiver is shallow, 
but deepens gradually, till, at a distance of some two miles, it 
12 



178 

opens out in Nequaquon Lake. The main, or northern outlet of 
this lake, is over a rocky bottom, and across this I propose to run a 
low flat dam, so as to give a sufficiency of water below Island 
Portage, at the shoals just mentioned. The southern outlet is 
smaller, but would also require a dam, and for these works I have 
included in the estimate a sum of four thousand dollars. 

PORTAGE BETWEEN NEQUAQUON AND NAMEUKAN. 

This Portage leads from the smooth water, at the western end 
of Nequaquon Lake, to a bay of the Nameukan Lake — its length is 
two miles, and the descent from one lake to the other about seventy- 
two feet. The ground is rough and difficult, but in the estimate I 
have included it with other portages, and taken a general average 
for the whole. From this Portage a reach of ten miles of navi- 
gable water ends at 

BARE PORTAGE. 

This is the last carrying place to Eainy Lake. The descent is 
8 fo 5 o feet, and the length of the portage — eleven chains — can be 
much reduced by a little excavation. 



LAKE OF THE WOODS DIVISION. 

This comprises the navigable reach extending from Fort Frances 
to the north-west angle of the Lake of the Woods, a distance of 
one hundred and twenty miles. 

At Fort Frances, there is a complete and sudden change in the 
appearance of the country, and an evident improvement in the 
climate. The ever-recurring rocks and hills of the lake region 
disappear, and in contrast to these are commodious buildings, a 
farm of some extent, and cattle grazing in the fields, with a broad 
river sweeping westward between banks of deep alluvial soil. 

Eainy Eiver is, here, a stream of great volume, nearly a quarter 
of a mile in width. The falls (22 T 8 o% feet in height) are just 
opposite the Fort, and from this point to the north-west angle of the 
Lake of the Woods (a distance of one hundred and twenty miles, 
as stated), the navigation is uninterrupted. 

There are, however, two little rapids on Eainy Eiver, the 
Manitou and the Long Eapids, occurring about half way to the 
Lake of the Woods, as set down on the accompanying map. The 
first, with a fall of 2f 5 o°o f ee ^ has great depth of water, and could 
easily be stemmed by a steamer of moderate power. The Long 






179 

Eapicl may have a fall of 3 J to 4 feet, distributed over a distance 
of some thirty chains. In this rapid the water glides smoothly, 
but is in some places shallow. I think, however, that even at the 
lowest stage of water, a vessel drawing four feet could pass. In any 
case, the bottom is of a nature to be easily deepened, if required. 
The strength of the current presents no serious obstacle, as canoes 
can be paddled up, requiring the use of the setting poles at only 
two points. At the Manitou the tow line has generally to be used. 

Any impediment in these rapids, therefore, would be so easily 
overcome, that it is hardly worth estimating, and to all practical 
purposes, the navigation in this long reach may be regarded as 
uninterrupted. 

In my preliminary report, as already said, before the later 
explorations were made, in the country westward of the Lake of 
the Woods, Lac Plat was suggested as the starting point of a road 
to Fort Garry, chiefly because it was supposed to be the point 
which would involve the making of the smallest extent of road. 
The western extremity of Lac Plat is, however, one hundred and 
fifty eight miles from Fort Frances, while the north-west angle, 
which is now adopted as the starting point, is but one hundred 
and twenty miles ; a saving of thirty-eight miles is thus effected 
in navigating the Lake of the Woods. 

Before concluding this part of the subject, I would draw atten- 
tion to the fact 4h at two locks at Fort Frances, where the fall is 
22 T 8 % feet, would have the effect of adding Painy Lake to the 
navigable reach which I have just been describing, giving one 
hundred and sixty-six miles without a trans-shipment. 



FORT GARRY SECTION. 

As already explained, a good deal of difficulty was experienced 
in finding a line practicable for a road, by which to get through the 
marshy region intervening between the Lake of the Woods and the 
prairie eastward of the Pted Eiver Settlement. 

This section of country presents to the eye, in its general 
character, the appearance of an uncleviating Hat. From the Lake 
of the Woods, for a distance of twenty-five or thirty miles west- 
ward, swamps of great extent, covered with moss and stunted ever- 
greens, are of frequent occurrence. In other sections, considerable 
areas are occupied by marshes or shallow lakes, with bulrushes 
and other aquatic plants standing out of the water. In the latter 
cases, the bottom, after a certain depth is attained, is generally firm, 
while, in the swamps, in some instances, the surface covering is 



180 

itself afloat, and heaves and undulates beneath the feet, presenting 
a quagmire or peat bog, on an extensive scale. This description 
applies more particularly to the section nearest to the Lake of the 
Woods. On approaching the prairie, the swamps are less extensive 
and the ground in general more favorable. In the swampy sections, 
however, there are some areas of dry ground and good soil, and, 
where the bogs are deepest, they are intersected by low gravelly 
ridges which rise but a few feet over the general level. These 
ridges are firm, and their direction can be traced by the heavy 
growth of wood which they carry. Flat and level as the country 
appears to be, it is susceptible of being drained. The section most 
swampy, although but slightly higher than the Lake of the Woods, 
is at an elevation of over three hundred feet above the valley of 
Eed River, and wherever a run of water is met with, except in the 
lake-like swamps, it is seen gliding on with a speed which indicates 
a sufficient fall for drainage. 

The principal streams in the region are the Broken Head Eiver, 
the White Mouth Eiver, and the Eoseau or Eiver of Eoses. 

The latter takes its rise in the United States Territory, and runs 
westward, at a short distance from, and nearly parallel to, the 
Boundary Line, till it joins the Eed Eiver, a little to the north of 
Pembina. This stream forms a link in the ancient war-path of the 
Saulteaux Indians to the country of their enemies — the Sioux. 
The Broken Head runs north to Lake Winnipeg, while the White 
Mouth falls into the Winnipeg Eiver, just above the Seven Portages. 
The section which I have just been describing, except in the swamps 
and marshes, is densely wooded. Westward of this is the Prairie, 
having a depth of thirty miles to the eastward of Eed Eiver. This 
Prairie does not meet the wooded region as might be supposed, 
gradually merging from prairie to woodland, but abruptly and at 
once. It seems to be an ancient lake bottom, still nearly as level 
as a lake, and generally without wood. Bordering on this is the 
wooded region, with points stretching into the plain, like the head- 
lands of a lake. Just where the prairie and woodland meet, there 
are, in some places, banks of gravel which will eventually become 
of importance, as material for forming roadways over the soft and 
yielding soil of the plains. 

Prom Fort Garry to the north-west angle of the Lake of the 
Woods, a road line has been laid out, and its practicability proved 
by the fact that, for several years, it was used as a post road and 
the mails carried over it on horseback. Wheeled vehicles, except 
in very wet weather, can already travel over the Prairie, and, taking 
the line altogether, its average cost, to form a first class country 
road, will be rather under than over the general average of such 
-works 






181 

To describe it more particularly, starting from the north-west 
angle of the Lake of the Woods, the ground, for a distance of fifteen 
miles, is low and swampy, requiring deep and extensive cuts for 
draining, added to which the roadway, for several miles, will require 
to be fascined — no large bridges on this section. 

Proceeding westward, there is a marked improvement in the 
next ten miles, but the ground is still very swampy. Material for 
fascining and bridging abounds, and two small bridges have to be 
made, on tributaries of the White Mouth Eiver. Taking the above 
as one section of twenty-five miles, reckoning from the Lake of the 
Woods, I set its average cost at sixteen hundred dollars per mile, 
equal to forty thousand dollars; still proceeding westward for thirty- 
five miles (which may. be regarded as one section) the ground is 
much improved in character. For some four or five miles, near the 
White Mouth Eiver, nothing better could be desired. Then follows 
a series of low gravelly ridges, over many portions of which little 
more has to be done than to grub out the trees. An occasional 
intrusion from an adjoining swamp has to be fascined, and bridges 
will be required over the Broken Head and White Mouth Eivers. 
For this section, I have set down one thousand dollars per mile; in 
all thirty-five thousand dollars. 

The next section is over low prairie embracing a distance of 
about thirty miles, from a place where there are a few Indian huts, 
called " Oak Point Settlement," to Fort Garry. For this section I 
have set down four hundred dollars per mile, which may appear to 
be a low estimate for a road, but all that can be done for it, with- 
out going to a very great outlay, is to drain it thoroughly, and, if 
this were done, it would be as good as the roads at Eed Eiver 
generally are. A road on a prairie has this advantage, that when 
the turf cuts and the wheels begin to sink in one track, another is 
always available, the width being quite unlimited. 

To render the section under consideration practicable in this 
way, one deep ditch is necessary, with a little fascining and raising 
of the roadway in the lower parts. Lateral cuts, of considerable 
length, will have to be made to drain the water from the main 
trench ; all which can be accomplished at an average cost of four 
hundred dollars per mile, making in all, twelve thousand dollars for 
the Prairie Section. 



182 

TOTAL LENGTH OF ROUTE BY LAND AND WATER. 

Land Miles. Chains. Water Miles. 

Dog Lake Poad 25 

Dog Lake and River 35 

Height of Land Portage 10 

Lac des Mille Lacs and Savane Piv'r 42 

Baril Portage 16 

Baril Lake 8 J 

Brule Portage 21 

Windegoostegoon 12 

French Portage 2 

Kaogassikok » 15 

Deux Eivieres 2 

Sturgeon Lake 27 

Island Portage 13 

jSTequaquon 17 

Nequaquon Portage 2 

Xameukan Lake 10 

Bare Portage 11 

Kainy Lake 46 

Fort Frances 10 

Kainy Paver and Lake of the Woods 120 

Fort Garry 90 

131 71 3321 

131 

463-i 



ESTIMATE. 

The probable cost of opening the communication, in the way I 
lave proposed, from Jourdain's Eapid, at the head of- the navigable 
water on Dog Kiver, to Fort Garry, would be as follows : — 

LAKE KEGION. 

Eoads and improvements at Height of Land, 

between Dog Kiver and Lac des Mille Lacs $11,000 00 

Dam, with flood-gates, at eastern end Great 

French Portage 1,600 00 

Dam, thirty-five feet high, across Sturgeon 

Paver, at Island Portage 18,000 00 

Two low flat dams, at Nequaquon Lake ... 4,000 00 



183 

Dam, at Little Falls (Two Falls Portage on 

the River Seine) 20,000 00 

Six and a half miles road and tramway over 

portages, between Lac des Mille Lacs and 

Rainy Lake 10,400 00 

865,000 00 

LAND EOADS (FOET GxVEEY SECTION.) 

Ninety miles land road, between 

north-west angle of the Lake 

of the Woods and Fort Garry, 

would cost for twenty-five 

miles, Eastern Section, at 

§1,600 per mile $40,000 00 

Thirty-five miles, Middle Sec- 
tion, at 81,000 per mile 35,000 00 

Thirty miles, Western Section, 

over low prairie, at 8400 

per mile 12,000 00 

87,000 00 



$152,000 00 



OTHEE WORKS (LAKE SUPEEIOE SECTION.) 

A pier required at the Depot, Thunder 

Bay, Lake Superior 2,500 00 

Seven miles land road, to connect Fort 

William with Dog Lake Line 7,000 00 

9,500 00 

$161,500 00 
Superintendence and contingencies 5,000 00 



$166,500 00 
The above does not include- such of the works, in the Lake 
Superior section, as were provided for in the grant of fifty-five 
thousand nine hundred dollars made last year, except a road at the 
Height of Land, which is allowed for in the present estimate. This 
was necessary, inasmuch as the total grant of last year will be re- 
quired to complete the road to Dog Lake, and finish the dam, which 
latter was found to involve a little more work than anticipated, on 
account of the necessity which has arisen of running an additional 
dam along a rocky ridge of low ground, south of the outlet of 
Dog Lake. 



184 
PROBABLE TRAFFIC. 

Within the last few years, since the North-west Territories have 
begun to attract so much attention, many schemes have been ad- 
vanced and many suggestions made, as to the best means of opening 
the communication. Without going, for the present, into the merits 
of these schemes, I would draw attention to the fact that the coun- 
try between Lake Superior and the Eed Eiver Settlement is a 
wilderness, as yet in a state of nature ; that, except to the canoe of 
the Indian, or the voyager, it is quite inaccessible in its present 
state, and that until some way of getting through it is devised, there 
can be no means of taking even the initiatory steps in the construc- 
tion of works of great magnitude, such as railways or canals. A 
line of communication such as I have proposed would render the 
country accessible, and, when it is completed, it will be time enough 
to entertain greater projects. 

But, while taking this view of its utility, I must also draw at- 
tention to the fact that the opening of the communication, even in 
this simple way, would have the immediate effect of drawing the 
trade of the North-west Territories to Canada. 

The people of Eed Eiver, at present, purchase their goods in 
St. Paul, and take them from thence full six hundred miles, over- 
land, to the settlement : sometimes, indeed, there is a small steamer 
which runs on Eed Eiver during high water, but, as a general rule, 
the goods which the settlers require are carted all the way through, 
and the cost of freight is generally reckoned at from four and a half 
to five dollars per 100 lbs. 

Now, from an estimate which I have made, I feel confident that 
if the communication were opened, even in the primitive way sug- 
gested, the cost of transport from Lake Superior to the Eed Eiver 
Settlement would not exceed $1.75 per 100 lbs.; but, supposing that 
it should cost as much as two dollars, it would still be less, by over 
one-half, than the cost of freight from St. Paul; and when the vastly 
cheaper rate at which goods can be purchased in Canada, as com- 
pared to Minnesota, is considered, it is but reasonable to suppose 
that the trade must come this way. 

I have only alluded, so far, to the trade of the settlement, or 
rather of the settlers, apart from that of the Hudson's Bay Com- 
pany, but I think the latter might be looked for also ; for the able 
officers who manage that ancient and honorable corporation, as soon 
as they saw that they could get their supplies cheaper by Lake 
Superior than by Hudson's Bay or St. Paul, would at once adopt 
the route. It is clear, therefore, that by opening the communica- 
tion in the manner proposed, a trade, amounting to several millions 
of dollars annually, would be at once transferred to Canada, Even 
as a matter of speculation, without reference to political consider- 



185 

ations or the vast field which would be opened to colonization, it 
would be a safe enterprise to open the line. 

It is a circumstance of no small importance, in recommending 
the expenditure of money on a public work, to be able to show that, 
when completed, it will at once begin to yield a return. In the 
present instance, the return would not, of course, be in the shape of 
tolls on the works, but in the way of increasing trade, and conse- 
quently increasing revenue, the laying open of extensive tracts of 
fertile territory lor settlement, and the development of a district 
now known to be rich in mineral resources. 

The State of Minnesota has, of late, being doing a good deal to 
facilitate intercourse and trade with the Bed Eiver Settlement. 
During the summer now approaching, a tri-weekly line of stages 
will be established, mails will be delivered every second day, 
and the people, cut off from Canada, will naturally draw closer to 
the only neighbors with whom they can hold intercourse, and, if 
tins state of things continues long, they must become a community 
of the United States, rather than a British Colony. 

Now, it is evident, that if the trade of the North-west Territo- 
ries is of value to Minnesota, it ought to be of some importance to 
Canada; and, if the people of a new State see advantage in taxing 
their scanty resources, to make roads and keep up lines of stages to 
attract that trade, overland, surely the Dominion, with much greater 
facilities and more ample resources, might do a little to obtain it, 
when nearly two-thirds of the distance would be by navigable 
water. 



THE MEANS OF TRANSPORT. 

When the traffic of the Eecl Eiver Settlement and the North- 
west Territories has once fairly begun to take the route' by Lake 
Superior, private enterprise will soon fall upon the means by which 
transport can be most easily effected. 

LAND CARRIAGE. 

In the meantime, I may suggest the mode, which, in the first 
instance, must be resorted to. At Lake Superior, of course, when 
the communication is once completely opened, there will, no doubt,, 
be ample competition for the conveyance of articles over the road 
to Dog Lake, as there probably will be at the Height of Land Port- 
age also. 

At three of the portages in the interior, however, namely, the 
French, Deux Eivieres and Nequaquon Portages, averaging two 
miles each, horses and oxen will have to be maintained for a 
time. At the Baril, Brule, Island and Bare Portages, tramways- 
will be arranged for hand cars, the latter being short. 



186 

Between the North- west angle of the Lake of the Woods and 
Fort Garry, no provision would have to be made, as the means of 
conveyance are abundant at the Bed River Settlement. 

WATER CARRIAGE. 

On the shorter reaches, boats, such as the Hudson's Bay Com- 
pany use in the transport of goods from York Factory to the Eed 
fever Settlement, would be the best. They carry about five tons, 
and are easily drawn over a portage. Such boats would answer well 
between Lac des Mille Lacs and Fort Frances. Once the communi- 
cation was fairly established, a relay of boats might be kept on each 
reach, and then much larger vessels might be employed. 

In the longer reaches, steamers might be used to advantage, and 
would probably — most certainly, if the traffic became extensive — be 
more economical than boats. 

There would be in all five reaches in which I think it would be 
desirable to have small steamers, namely : — 

On Dog Lake and Eiver 35 miles navigable. 

Savane Eiver and Lac des Mille Lacs... 42 

Sturgeon Lake and Eiver 27 

Rainy Lake 46 

Fort Francis to North-west Angle 120 " 



■G j 



270 miles. 
Thus, in five reaches, amounting in the aggregate to two hundred 
and seventy miles, the shortest of which would be twenty-seven 
miles in length, small steamers, of a cheap class, might be used to 
advantage. Gradually, as improvement advanced, the reaches 
might be connected together by means of locks, and then, of 
course, larger vessels would come into play. 

In the five shorter navigable reaches of the "Lake Region," 
boats such as I have suggested, or indeed scows or boats of any 
kind, might be used, as for instance, in 

Baril Lake 8 J miles. 

Windegoostegoon 12 

Kaogassikok 15 

Nequaquon Lake 17 

Nameukan 10 

62| miles. 
Five reaches, giving sixty-two miles and a half for ordinary row 
boats and scows. 

COST OF FREIGHT. 

With these arrangements on the carrying places and navigable 
reaches, the cost of freight would be nearly as follows : — 



187 

25 miles land carriage, to Dog Lake 25 cents. 

35 miles water carriage, through Dog River and 

Lake 8 " 

10 miles land carriage, Height of Land 12 " 

184 miles, to Fort Frances, land and water 60 " 

120 miles, Fort Frances to Lake of Woods, in 

steamers or barges carrying say fifty to 

one hundred tons 8 " 

90 miles, North-west Angle to Fort Garry, by 

land 80 " 



464 miles. ' SI 93 

or say even two dollars per 100 lbs. 

This would be less than half the cost of freight from St. Paul, 
which is $4 50 per 100 lbs. and sometimes five dollars. 

I have set down the cost of transport purposely high, although 
in some places it may appear low ; for example, between the North- 
west Angle and Fort Garry, I have put down eighty cents per one 
hundred pounds, as the cost, in a distance of ninety miles. In es- 
timating the accuracy of this, it must, in the first place, be consid- 
ered that horses and carts are abundant at Eecl Eiver. Horses are 
very numerous, and there is but little employment for them, and 
the people make their own carts and harness, which, although very 
serviceable, are very cheap ; they besides bring articles six hundred 
miles from St. Paul for S4.50 per 100 pounds, which would be but 
equal to sixty-seven and a half cents on ninety miles, and I have 
set down eighty cents, a fair allowance in any country. Even in 
Lower Canada, on the St, Maurice, where there is a good deal of 
competition in winter, loads can be sent one hundred and twenty 
miles into the interior for from seventy-five to eighty cents per 100 
pounds ; and between Three Eivers and Montreal, a distance of just 
ninety miles, sixty cents per 100 pounds, would be considered, at 
Three Payers, a high rate. 

In the long navigable reach of one hundred and twenty miles, 
between the North-west Angle and Fort Frances, I have put eight 
cents per 100 pounds, equal to 81.60 per ton of 2000 pounds ; one 
dollar per ton would be ample, as large vessels can be used. 

In the reach of broken navigation, of one hundred and eighty- 
four miles, between the Savane or Height of Land Portage and Fort 
Frances, I have put sixty cents per 100 pounds, equal to twelve 
dollars per ton of 2,000 pounds. Now five men with a boat carry- 
ing five tons, can go in five days from the Savane to Fort Frances, 
and return in four days, taking the same boat with them all the 
way. Allowing one dollar per day for each man, their expenses 
would be, for nine days, forty-five dollars, whereas I have allowed 
sixty dollars ; but, if there were a relay of boats and scows capable 



188 

of carrying fifty tons, on each reach, with horses and waggons on 
the three longer portages, it could be done for six dollars per ton, 
or say thirty cents per 100 pounds. 

For the Height of Land carriage of ten miles, I have set down 
twelve cents per 100 pounds, or say $2.40 per ton of 2,000 pounds. 
It requires no explanation to show that this is a very ample estimate. 

In the Dog Lake and Eiver reach of thirty-five miles, I have 
put down eight cents, equal to $1.60 per ton, and for the land car- 
riage of twenty-five miles, from Thunder Bay to Dog Lake, I 
estimate twenty-live cents per 100 lbs., or say five dollars per ton 
of 2,000 pounds. 

These estimates will all be considered ample ; but, supposing the 
communication to be well opened, and the appliances for transport 
in full operation, the following would be a fair estimate : — 

25 miles land road, Thunder Bay to Dog Lake 25 cents. 

35 miles water carriage, Dog Eiver and Lake 6 " 

10 miles land carriage, Height of Land 10 " 

184 miles, Fort Frances, 6^ being by land 30 " 

120 miles, Fort Frances to north-west angle in Bat- 

teaux, of 100 tons 6 " 

90 miles land carriage, North-west Angle to Fort 

Garry 75 " 



464 miles. $1.52 per 100 lbs. 

That is, $30, T 4 o°o per ton of 2,000 lbs., from Thunder Bay to Fort 
Garry. But, as I said before, making every allowance, and taking 
the cost at $2 per 100 lbs., equal to forty dollars per ton, at the 
outset. From York Factory to Eed Eiver, the contract price used 
to be twenty pounds sterling, or one hundred dollars per ton, while 
the present rate, by the Prairies and Eed Eiver, is ninety dollars 
per ton of 2,000 lbs. 

Beyoud this, it surely requires no argument to show that, if the 
communication were opened, the whole trade of the Eed Eiver set- 
tlement, both that of the Hudson's Bay Company and the settlers, 
would pass by Lake Superior. A saving of fifty dollars per ton on 
freight would certainly decide the matter. But this is not all, the 
price of such articles as the people of the Eed Eiver require, being 
chiefly dry goods and groceries, is much lower in Canada than in 
any of the remote western Towns of Minnesota. If Fort William 
were again made a free port, as it recently was, and always sup- 
posing the communication to be opened, the people of the Eed 
Eiver Settlement would be in position to supply the northern set- 
tlements of Minnesota with merchandize, instead of being depend- 
ent upon them, as at present. 



189 
RESOURCES— TIMBER, &c. 

When the communication is opened, and settlement begins to 
advance in the prairies of the West, there will be a demand for 
wood for building and other purposes, increasing gradually until it 
has attained proportions commensurate with the means of trans- 
port. Westward of the Height of Land, on the streams flowing 
towards Rainy Lake, there is an abundance of timber, such as red 
and white pine, of a large size and good quality. This section 
would compare not unfavorably with some of the best lumber 
regions on the Upper Ottawa. 

The prairies are nearly destitute of timber, and here is a supply 
which, to all practical purposes, may be said to be illimitable, and, 
looking to the future of the western territories, and having regard 
to the probable traffic which is to support a line of communication, 
there are, in the forests of the Winnipeg slope, the elements of a 
trade which should be kept in view. 

Another article of economic value, which should be taken into 
account, is the vast quantity of peat which might be obtained in 
the swampy region near the Lake of the Woods; some of the 
swamps are very deep, and hold in store great quantities of fuel of 
this description, for a region further to the west where there is but 
little wood. In a very short time the people of Red River Settlement 
will find peat cheaper than wood, although, doubtless, they have 
for the present a considerable supply of the latter article. 

The country has, however, other valuable resources, of which 
but little is as yet known, and no doubt, in the future, attention 
will be directed to its 

MINERAL RESOURCES. 

It is now well known that silver mines of surpassing richness 
were discovered at Lake Superior last summer, but it is not so 
generally understood that a formation, of the same age as that in 
which they occur, extends with more or less interruption to the 
Lake of the Woods, and that, for a great part of the way, the line 
which it is proposed to open will pass over Schists of the 
Lower Silurian period, such as yield silver at Lake Superior, and 
gold in Nova Scotia. 

That part of line, however, extending from a little eastward of 
Dog Lake to the Nameukan Lake, will be almost wholly in Lau- 
rentian gneiss — Silurian rocks then show themselves, and the 
Schists on rainy Lake are plentifully intersected with lodes of 
quartz. While at Fort William, last summer, I was shown some 
very fine specimens of Gold quartz taken from Rainy Lake. I 









190 



was also informed, on what I believed to be good authority, that 
alluvial Gold had been discovered, but that the fact was being kept 
as secret as possible. These reports gain confirmation from the 
fact, that on Vermillion Lake, in Minnesota, which is tributary to 
Rainy Lake, and only at a short distance from it, Gold quartz has 
been already worked and various claims taken up. The commu- 
nication which it is proposed to open might, therefore, be the 
means of developing an American as well as a Canadian Gold 
Field* 

At the Lake of the Woods, chloritic and talcose schists, of Silu- 
rian age, similar to those of the Gold districts of the Chaudiere, are 
frequent on the Islands, and they are traversed by what appear to 
be very promising quartz lodes. 

L T pon the whole, the indications and actual discoveries through- 
out the region are such as to warrant the expectation that there 
are mineral resources, as yet undeveloped, which will eventually 
lead to a trade which will greatly aid in sustaining a dine of com- 
munication. 



OTHER METHODS OF OPENING THE COMMUNICATION. 
EAILWAYS. 

It has been urged that a Railroad from Lake Superior to Red 
River would afford the best and easiest means of communication, 
and that it would form a link in the great Railway system which 
it is believed will, at no distant day, span the continent from the 
Atlantic to the Pacific, within British Territory. 

Now, while admitting the great advantages which would result 
from a work of this kind, it must be borne in mind that the means 
for its construction cannot at present be obtained. There is no 
amount of argument, as to prospective advantages, which could 
procure the investment of twenty millions of dollars, which 

* The following extract shows that the mines in the Vermillion district, near 
Eainy Lake, are beginning to attract attention : — 

"The Lake Superior Country. — The Gazette (Superior, Wis.,) says: — 'Col. 
Henry Tyndall arrived here from the Vermillion district late last evening, and 
started for St. Paul this morning. Tests have been made from several of the veins, 
all with the most favorable results. The quantity of rock tested in each case was 
not less than five hundred pounds. In every experiment so far, the yield has been 
largely over $100 per ton ; and some of them have gone up to thousands. A private 
letter informs us of one instance where one hundred and fifty pounds of rock 
yielded a pound and one-half of bullion. Colonel Tyndall pronounces the country 
rich, and in this statement he is borne out by the amount of bullion which he 
brings with him, amounting to between seven and eight pounds of gold and silver.'" 



191 

would be about its cost, in an undeveloped region, such as that 
through which it would pass. Theoretically, the idea may be a 
good one, but practically, it is at least premature. 

Moreover, a railroad between the points indicated would be 
isolated as regards other railways, and being available only during 
the season of navigation, would be without one of the chief advan- 
tages of a railroad, which is that it can be kept in operation, 
independently of the navigation. 

It has been suggested that, whatever objections might attach 
to the project of a railway all the way to Ked Eiver, a compara- 
tive short line would best overcome the rough and difficult section 
intervening between Lake Superior L^d Eainy Lake. But the 
same objections which present themselves in regard to the former, 
apply to the latter. 

Its length, that is of a line from Lake Superior to Eainy Lake,, 
allowing for deviations, would not be greatly less than two hun- 
dred miles, and its cost would far exceed any means which there 
is a probability of obtaining. 

It would absorb an amount of capital more than sufficient to 
provide for the lockage required to connect the navigable reaches 
between Dog Lake and Lake Winnipeg, and form a canal, which, 
in the present state of the country, or any stage of development to 
which it can attain for a considerable period, would be of greater 
utility than a railroad. 

Finally, before such a work was undertaken, the country would 
have to be rendered accessible, as I have already said, by some 
such means of communication as I have suggested. 

It will not be understood, however, from what I have said, that 
a railway is impracticable. In fact, with exception of the section 
between Lake Superior and Eainy Lake, which is rough and broken 
and has never yet been explored with a view to a work of the 
kind, the ground is not unfavorable, but, as I have said, the idea 
of such a work is premature. 

CANALS. 

On reference to what I have already stated, it will be seen 
that, from Dog Lake north-westward, to the Lake of the Woods, 
long navigable reaches occur in continuous succession, separated 
by short intervals of rapid water or other impediments. From 
the Height of Land Portage, where it strikes the Savanz Eiver, to 
the North-west Angle of the Lake of the Woods, the distance is 
three hundred and four miles, and the total amount of lockage that 
would be required, four hundred and twenty-five feet, being some- 
what less than that of the Eideau Canal. By means of lock and 



192 

dam, the whole of this distance might be rendered navigable with- 
out a break, at comparatively small cost, if wooden locks were 
adopted. The river channels between the navigable sections, are 
every where of rock, and generally favorable for the construction 
of such works as would be required. 

With this extent of navigation might be connected the navi- 
gable water, east of the Height of land, having a length, in Dog 
Lake and Kiver, of thirty-five miles. 

When the dam now in progress at Dog Lake is completed, the 
difference in level between the waters of Dog Eiver and the 
Savanc will be about a hundred feet, and a Canal with locks, by 
way of Muskaig Lake, might be constructed to connect the two. 
Lac des Mille Lacs would be the summit level, and it has suffi- 
-cient water for a Canal both ways. 

This would give three hundred and fifty miles of unbroken 
navigation, approaching at its eastern extremity to within twenty- 
five miles of Lake Superior, and at its western to within ninety 
miles of Fort Garry. 

All the lockage required would cost less than would a railroad 
of two hundred miles to Eainy Lake, and it would be of vastly 
greater utility. 

A short Eailway of twenty-five miles, from Dog Lake to 
Thunder Bay, would connect the navigation with Lake Superior ; 
while a similar work of ninety miles, from Fort Garry to the 
ISTorth-west Angle of the Lake of the Woods, would join it to the 
Eed Eiver Settlement. The latter Eailway would be over very 
even ground. 

I have offered these suggestions, not with a view of conveying 
the impression that they should be immediately acted upon, but to 
show what is practicable, and what would be the true way of 
opening a line adapted for heavy traffic, when the country has at- 
tained a stage of development to warrant the expenditure which 
it would involve. 



SYSTEM OF WORK BY CONTRACT OR OTHERWISE. 

The work is of that nature, which from long experience in car- 
rying on similar operations, in remote sections, I believe could be 
better performed by engaging good workmen and competent over- 
seers than by contract. 

Contract work is all well enough in a settled country, where, if 
one man fails in accomplishing an undertaking, others are always 
ready to take it up ; but, in such a region as that in which the 



193 

works under consideration would be carried on, the Government 
would be, in a measure, at the mercy of the contractor; as for in- 
stance, if he should not make provision for a particular work, or 
from any cause break off, it would throw the enterprise back for a 
full year. Contractors, as a general rule, would only undertake 
work in a region so remote in the hope of large profits, which the 
comparatively small sums set down for each particular section 
would not bear. They would, as usual, have endless bills for 
extras, where every little contingency could not be foreseen; 
and if it appeared to be a losing business, would delay and petition 
for increase in their rates, and might, indeed, abandon the works 
altogether. M orever, the Indians, in some of the sections, have to 
be very carefully dealt with. At such a distance from the re- 
straints of law, none but men of good character should be brought 
among them, and spirituous liquors should be strictly prohibited. 

Under a system of contract, the Government would have little 
to say as to the class of men to be employed, and the officers in 
charge of the works might be unable to prevent liquor from being 
smuggled in. The Indians sometimes assemble at Fort Frances, 
and on Eainy Eiver, to the number of five or six hundred, and if a 
few barrels of whiskey were rolled amongst them the consequences 
might, undoubtedly would, be serious. 

Moreover, contractors, or their employes, would not consider 
themselves in any way bound to refrain from interfering in the fur 
trade, and tlieir doing so would irritate and render hostile the 
employes of the Hudson's Bay Company, who had been so friendly 
and obliging in the past, and whose good offices will, I have no 
doubt, be equally at the disposal of the country in the future, if 
they meet with the courtesy they are always ready to extend. 

In my allusions to the contract system, I wish it to be clearly 
understood that I speak from my own experience of such a system 
in the wilderness, and, meaning no reflection on contractors in 
general, I would say that if such a system is adopted in the Eainy 
Lake Section of the country, a military force will be required to 
support it, and this would soon occasion a greater outlay than the 
full amount of my estimate for the work. 

For the works on the Lake Superior Section, and the Lake 
Eegion, the head-quarters, from whence supplies are to be sent in, 
must be at Fort William or Thunder Bay ; the latter, of course, 
after the Dog Lake road is completed. 

For the road between the North-west Angle of the Lake of the 
Woods and Fort Garry, supplies and men must be obtained at the 
Eed Eiver Settlement. Workmen in sufficient numbers can be 
had there, and, from letters I have recently received, I am led to 
believe that provisions also will be abundant, such as flour, beef, etc. 

13 






194 
THE INDIAN ELEMENT. 

In opening the communication to Red River, the country will be 
brought, to some extent, into contact with the Indians, who have 
their hunting grounds on the line of route. 

Hitherto, Canada has been fortunate in dealing with the Indian 
element; and, in the present case, I see no reason for anticipating 
greater difficulty than has arisen in the past, 

The only localities were the Indians are at all numerous, are at 
the Lake of the Woods and Rainy River, but the entire population 
does not greatly exceed three thousand. They can, however, collect 
in summer in larger numbers than Indians usually do, from the 
fact that they have abundance of food. This is afforded by the 
wild rice of the country which they collect, and by the fish which 
literally swarm in the lakes and rivers ; some industry practised 
on their own part, too, in raising Indian corn, serves to supply 
them to a small extent. I have seen as many as five or six hun- 
dred of them collected at one time, at the rapids on Rainy River, 
engaged in catching sturgeon, the flesh of which they preserve by 
drying it like Pemican and then pounding it up and putting it, 
with a due mixture of oil, into bags made of sturgeon's skin. 

They have a rude sort of Government, and the regulations made 
by their Chiefs are observed, it is said, better than laws usually are 
where there are no great means of enforcing them. 

They are very intelligent, and are extremely jealous as to their 
right of soil and authority over the country which they occupy. 

When the Red River Expedition first came in contact with 
them, they manifested some displeasure, and were not slow to 
express it, at parties being sent through their country, to explore 
and examine it, without their consent being first asked and obtained. 
On becoming better acquainted with them, we found it to our 
advantage to keep up a little friendly intercourse with the Chiefs, 
calling upon them as we passed, and interchanging a few presents 
of no great value. When we had adopted this course, all difficulties 
vanished, and, ere the explorations were brought to a close, they 
manifested and expressed an earnest wish to see the communica- 
tion opened. 

The chief danger which could arise of coming into unfriendly 
relations with the Indians, would be from having large parties of 
workmen in the vicinity of their encampments. Now, this is a 
contingency not likely to arise, from the fact that where the Indians 
are numerous the navigation is unimpeded and but little work 
required ; but, as a rule, extreme prudence will always have to be 
observed by the officers in charge of men to keep them from coming 
in contact with the Indians. 



195 

These Indians are all heathens, and never seem to have been in 
the slightest degree impressed by the Missionaries who have 
attempted their conversion. They are, however, very pious in their 
own way, and much of their time seems to be occupied in 
religious observances, which have their manifestation in long fasts 
and nights of watching, when they pretend to hold familiar inter- 
course with Spirits, whose presence, in the secret recesses of their 
lodges, is indicated by drum-beating, chanting, incantations and 
many unearthly noises besides. At stated intervals, the greatest 
and most solemn ceremony of the tribe, the Mystical Feast of the 
White Dog, is held at Fort Frances, and, at such times, the gravity 
and terrible earnestness of their demeanor would do no discredit to 
more civilized congregations. 

In appearance these Indians are tall and well formed, and, in 
bearing, independent ; sometimes, even a' little saucy, but in their 
intercourse with strangers they are hospitable and hind. Their 
morality is said to be of a high order, as compared to that of the 
Indians of the Plains. 

They are, in general, keen traders, and seem to know the value 
of what they get and give, as well as any people in the world. 
Some of those who assemble at Eainy River for the sturgeon fishing, 
in summer, come from Bed Lake, in the neighboring State of Minne- 
sota, where they possess hunting grounds ; and, among these latter^ 
are some who have been parties to treaties with the United States 
for relinquishing certain tracts for settlement, for which they are 
now in receipt of annual payments. The experience they have 
thus gained has rendered them expert diplomatists, as compared to 
Indians who have never had such advantages, and they have not 
failed to impress on their kindred and tribe, on Eainy Eiver, the 
value of the lands which they hold on the line of route to Eed 
Eiver. 

Any one who, in negotiating with these Indians, should suppose 
he had mere children to deal with, would find himself mistaken. 
In their manner of expressing themselves, indeed, they make use of 
a great deal of allegory, and their illustrations may at times appear 
childish enough, but, in their actual dealings, they are shrewd and 
sufficiently awake to their own interests, and, if the matter should 
be one of importance, affecting the general interests of the tribe, 
they neither reply to a proposition, nor make one themselves, until 
it is fully discussed and deliberated upon in Council of all the 
Chiefs. 

The Chiefs are fond of asking any travellers, whom they believe 
to be of importance, to attend a Grand Council, as it affords them 
an opportunity of making speeches, which are meant quite as much 
to swell their importance in the eyes of their own people as to 



196 

impress the stranger; and with their people these meetings 
are popular, as it affords them an excuse for making a holiday, and 
coming out in all the varieties of colour which paint, unsparingly 
applied, can produce. 

At these gatherings it is necessary to observe extreme caution 
in what is said, as, although they have no means of writing, there 
are always those present who are charged to keep every word in 
mind. As an instance of the manner in which records are in this 
way kept, without writing, I may mention that, on one occasion, at 
Fort Frances, the principal Chief of the tribe commenced an oration 
by repeating, almost verbatim, what I had said to him two years 
previously. 

All this goqs to show a certain stability of character, and a 
degree of importance attached to what they say, on such occasions, 
themselves, as well as to what they hear from others. The word of 
the Chiefs once passed, too, seems to be quite reliable, and this 
augurs well for the observance of any treaty that may be made with 
them. 

For my own part, I would have the fullest reliance as to these 
Indians observing a treaty and adhering most strictly to all its pro- 
visions, if, in the first place, it were concluded after full discussion, 
and after all its provisions were thoi oughly understood by the Indians, 
and if, in the next, it were never infringed upon by the whites, who 
are generally the first to break through Indian treaties. 

THE TEEATY. 

From what I have said, I trust it will be seen that some sort of 
a treaty should be arrived at with the Indians. They are, as I have 
stated, desirous of seeing the communication opened, believing that 
it will conduce to their advantage, and I think a treaty with them 
should, in the first instance, be confined to this one point, namely, 
right of way. This they expressed their willingness to accord 
many years ago, but the question of relinquishing land for settle- 
ment was always taken by them en delioerc. In this latter respect, 
what they are afraid of is, that settlers w^ould interfere with the 
fisheries, from which they derive their chief means of subsistence, 
and I think it would, in the first instance, be imprudent to introduce 
settlement in the particular section which they occupy. The first 
great point is to get the communication opened, and the first treaty 
should be confined, as I have said, simply to right of way. By 
combining it with the land question, surveys of townships for 
settlement, reserves for the Indians, and so forth, complications 
might arise which would prove embarrassing. 

There is but one point more, in relation to this subject, to which I 
would invite attention ; it is the necessity of adopting the most 



197 

rigorous and strict measures to prevent the conveyance of ardent 
liquors to the Indian country. This the officer in charge of the 
works can easily see to, if he is armed with the proper authority. 
There is no likelihood of any of the employes of the works taking 
spirits, in any quantity, with them, unless contractors are employed ; 
but there are private traders who would follow in their wake, and 
would not be slow to bring liquor, if through it they could drive a 
trade for furs ; and such persons should, if they made the attempt,, 
be at once arrested. 

The Indians at Kainy River and the Lake of the Woods are, as 
a general rule, in happy ignorance of what ardent liquor is. On 
the American side, the penalties against its introduction are so> 
severe that it rarely makes it appearance, while on the British side 
its use is prohibited by the Hudson's Bay Company. 

To these fortunate circumstances, I believe, are due the well- 
being and orderly demeanor of the Indians, and the rapid increase 
in the population which, in this section, is, in contrast to the general 
rule, said to be taking place. 

The precautions which I have recommended will appear not to- 
be unnecessary, when it is considered that these Indians, notwith- 
standing their many good qualities, are still but savages ; that they, 
in common with all the untutored tribes of their race, are keen to 
resent an injury, real or supposed ; that a quarrel with one pro- 
minent indhiciTtal would be a quarrel with the tribe, and that the 
sole arbiters of a dispute with them are the scalping knife and 
tomahawk, to the use of which they are well practised in their 
unceasing wars with the Sioux; and when, alono: with all this, it is 
considered that they can muster five hundred fighting men, accus- 
tomed to the woods, the rivers, and every defile in the country, the 
expediency as well as the justice of keeping from them that first 
prolific source of Indian quarrels and Indian demoralization, " Fire 
Water," will be apparent. 

I have only further to say, that, with ordinary prudence, there 
need be no risk of getting into difficulty with the Indians. They 
will extend a warm welcome, in the first instance, to the parties 
sent in by the Government, and it will be for the latter to see that 
nothing occurs to interrupt a continuance of friendly intercourse. 

(See Xotices of Indians, in my printed Beport, pages 14 
and 26.) 






198 

AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES. 

LAKE SUPERIOR SECTION. 

Ill this section the cultivable areas are of limited extent, and 
confined chiefly to the valleys of the streams. There are, however, 
occasional plateaux at a considerable elevation, showing a moderate 
depth of loam. In the vicinity of the line of route, the best loca- 
tions will be found in the valley of the Kaministaquia, and on the 
shores of Thunder Bay. The climate of the country bordering on 
the lake shore is favorable to the growth of cereals, and all kinds 
of vegetables which are usually raised in other parts of Canada, 
When the mines at Thunder Bay, and on the north shore of Lake 
Superior generally, become developed, they will create a market 
for all kinds of agricultural produce, and this must render of great 
value such lands as are susceptible of cultivation. 

Around the shores of Dog Lake, there are occasional patches of 
fair land, but the elevation of the country is such as to render the 
climate rather cold. On Dog Eiver, and at the plateaux at the 
Height of Land, there is any amount of pasturage, and oats, potatoes, 
&c, might easily be raised. 

THE LAKE REGION. 

The eastern section of this region is cold, on account of its great 
elevation, but on descending to the westward the climate rapidly 
improves, and by the time Sturgeon Lake is reached, the summers 
are as long as at Lake Superior, and I think somewhat warmer. 

Eastward of Sturgeon Lake, the rock formation is Laurentian, 
and, as usual in regions occupied by that series, the cultivable 
areas are limited in extent, although, where they do occur, the soil 
is often very rich. It is such a country as that now being settled 
on the Gatineau or Upper Ottawa, with this difference, that 
whereas on the Gatineau and Ottawa the valleys present rivers 
bordered with alluvial soil, the valleys in this region are occupied 
by lakes. There are, nevertheless, occasional spots occurring at in- 
tervals throughout the whole region, where the soil is good, and of 
sufficient extent for farms ; but, as a rule, speaking generally, the 
country never can become an agricultural district. 

There are those, however, who would prefer a mountainous and 
diversified region of this kind, to the level areas which are spread 
out like oceans, a little further to the west. Among the Laurentian 
hills, and on the borders of lakes studded with wooded islands, there 
are situations of surpassing beauty and magnificence. The forests 
abound in game, and the rivers and lakes are teeming with fish, 
water power is unlimited, and timber, which will yet find a market 
in the prairies of the West, is abundant. 






199 

A farmer who should establish himself on any of the carrying- 
places with horses and waggons, would soon realize an indepen- 
dence, as many have done in similar situations on the Ottawa. 
The first to locate themselves would have the advantage, and might 
hope soon to see villages growing up around them. No more ad- 
vantageous situations could be desired than Jourdain's Eapids, the 
Prairie Portage, where there is an abundance of grass, or the French 
or Deux Bivieres Portages, all of which, until a canal is made, must 
be places of land carriage and trans-shipment. Here, then, in the 
event of the communication being opened, would be a field for enter- 
prise, to steady and industrious farmers, who could combine the 
cultivation of the land with the profitable employment of carrying 
freight over the portages. 

In such situations, too, the growing wants of a new settlement 
would soon create a demand for various branches of industry." 
Boat-builders, blacksmiths and carpenters, would find ready em- 
ployment where small craft had to be provided for such a length of 
inland navigation, and saw mills would be required to supply them 
with material. 

But, to proceed in regard to the capacity of the country for 
agriculture, on getting to Sturgeon Lake, the climate is improved, 
but the ground is rough and broken, as it is also at Nequaquon 
and Nameukan Lakes. Bainy Lake is so much indented with bays, 
that in passing through it only headlands and islands can be seen, 
and these are often rocky ; but I have heard it reported by the 
Indians that there are areas of very fine land about Bainy Lake. 

LAKE OF THE WOODS AND FORT GARRY SECTIONS. 

Arrived at Fort Frances, one hundred and ninety miles ' in an 
air line from Thunder Bay, the mountainous region is passed, and,, 
commencing here, a beautiful tract of land extends along the bank 
of Bainy Biver to the Lake of the Woods. This tract is of the very 
richest alluvial soil, and in the whole distance there is not appa- 
rently an acre unsusceptible of cultivation. Old Indian gardens, 
growing vetches and wile! grass, are met with at intervals on the 
banks, and the forests present bast >\ood, oak and elm, with occa- 
sional white pines of gigantic proportions. 

To this succeeds the Lake of the Woods, with fifty miles of navi- 
gation among islands varying in character, some fertile and others- 
barren, but on some of which the Indians have grown maize from! 
time immemorial. The section which comes next, that between 
the North-west Angle and the Prairie, as already described, is 
swampy. There are, nevertheless, occasional portions of it well 
adapted for settlement. 






200 

The wooded region ends with the section just referred to, and,, 
from this point westward to the Rocky Mountains and north-west- 
ward to Peace River, the prevailing characteristic is prairie. These 
prairies are, for the most part, of rich alluvial loam, but they are in 
some places sandy, as on the upper portion of the South Branch of 
the Saskatchewan. So vast is the region, and the soil throughout 
the greater part of its extent so good, that it is no exaggeration to 
say the cultivable areas may be reckoned by hundreds of millions of 
acres. 

The country is intersected with rivers, one of which, the Sas- 
katchewan, drains an area greater than does the St. Lawrence, and 
is navigable for seven hundred miles of its course. From the South 
Branch of this great river, north-west to Peace River, the climate 
is adapted to the growth of wheat. Coal, salt, iron, gold and bitu- 
men, are among the minerals to be found. Over the untilled fields 
which nature has spread out, the wild cattle of the plains roam in 
countless herds, and for hundreds of miles together may be seen 
grazing like domestic cattle in a field of pasture. A region which 
thus, in a state of nature, supports animal life in profusion, must 
be naturally rich, as regards its soil and climate. It is, in fact, 
fitted to sustain as dense an agricultural population as any area of 
equal extent on the face of the globe. 

Such, in a brief view, is the country with which it is proposed 
to open communication ; but to describe it further would be beyond 
the scope of this Report. 



THE WORK OF LAST SUMMER. 

In the month of May, last year, at the request of the Hon. 
Alex. Campbell, the then Commissioner of Crown Lands of Canada, 
I submitted an estimate of the probable cost of the works I had 
proposed in the Lake Superior Section, and an appropriation of 
855,900 having been made, on the same, from the Upper Canada 
Colonization Road Fund, as my time was greatly occupied by other 
engagements, it was eventually arranged that Mr. Bridgland, who had 
charge of the Upper Canada Colonization Roads, should undertake 
the road from Thunder Bay to Dog Lake, while, in regard to the 
dam, as he had no experience in works of the kind, I undertook to 
provide for its construction, and was accordingly instructed to lay 
out the work and place over it a competent superintendent, who 
should see to its management during my absence. 

Under these arrangements, considering the lateness of the period 
of the season at which operations were commenced, a fair amount 






201 

of work was accomplished. Six miles of tlie road were completed,:, 
under the able management of Mr. Snow, who had immediate 
charge of the working parties, and, at Dog Lake, nnder the direction 
of Mr. Joseph Samson, a considerable quantity of timber was got outr 
for the dam. Boats and scows were built for the conveyance -of* 
stone and material to the work, and a suitable building elected for 
the accommodation of the workmen. 

Much of the necessary material and tools for the road and dam, 
besides a small quantity of provisions, are now on hand, and it is 
greatly to be desired that the operations, so auspiciously commenced, 
should be proceeded with as early as possible in the spring, inas- 
much as these works, as well as being of paramount and permanent 
necessity to the line of communication, will, when completed, be of. 
great advantage in the first instance, in facilitating the conveyance- 
of materials and supplies to w* orks of similar character farther in 
the interior. 



ME. J. W. BRIDGLAND'S REPORT. 

I notice this document to correct an error into which Mr. 
Bridgland seems, inadvertently, to have fallen. . He has projected, 
on a map, a line of Eailway from Lake Superior to Bainy Lake, 
and, from the information gleaned from a mere preliminary report 
of mine, represents the country through which it would pass as 
being imperfectly examined, or wholly unexplored. Now, the fact 
is, that the region to which he refers, although not examined 
exactly with the view to a railway, has been explored to such an 
extent as to afford, at least, a fair knowledge of its topography. 
Messrs. Wells, Bussell and Gaudet, Provincial Land Surveyors, 
crossed and recrossed it in various directions, as I, myself, also did, 
making surveys and determining levels over extensive sections, and 
should Mr. Bridgland ever visit the country, which he has not as 
yet done, I feel confident that he will perceive the accuracy of the 
description contained in my reports, and reproduced in an abridged 
form in this document, under the heads of "Lake Superior Section" 
and " Lake Begion." 

As regards the railroad, I have, in various reports submitted to 
the Government, explained that when the circumstances of the 
country would admit of works of such magnitude, and when the 
North-west Territories had attained a certain degree of development, 
a short line, of some twenty -five miles, from Thunder Bay to Dog 
Lake, would be of advantage, as would also a line from the North- 
west angle of the Lake of the Woods to Fort Garry, combining 
with these great works the improvement of the intermediate navi- 






202 

gation, by means of lock and dam, from Dog Lake to the Lake of 
the Woods. 

Mr. Bridgland has adopted the same idea, with this difference, 
that he proposes a railroad of no less than two hundred miles at the 
outset, with one lock at Fort Frances. In either case, it will "be 
observed that there must be intermediate navigation. Then, why 
not bring the navigation as close as possible to Lake Superior, so as 
to have a shorter railroad ? A canal, supposing the lockage to 
average as much as that of the Eideau has done, would not cost half 
as much as a railroad of 200 miles in length, which latter, suppos- 
ing it to involve no greater outlay than similar works in this 
country have averaged, would cost at least eight millions of dollars. 

Such vast projects are as yet premature. In regard to Mr. 
Bridgland's scheme, as he professes no personal knowledge of the 
country, and merely submits it as a suggestion, I shall offer no 
further comment than to say that it would be useless to expend 
further sums of money in exploration of the route which he pro- 
poses, with the view to a railroad. His line, at the summit of the 
water-shed, would be at an elevation of some 1,500 feet above the 
level of Lake Superior, and that not in one gradual rise, but over 
successive hills and valleys. Further to the westward it would be 
on a sort of dividing ridge, between "long and irregular water- 
courses." ' Its course would be transverse to the strike of the gneiss 
which, over a considerable part of the route, is heaved up in 
mountain chains, or depressed in sharp valleys filled with 
lakes as already described, in this report, under the head of " Lake 
Eegion." Moreover, a railway of such considerable length should 
be so placed as to be available, at some future period, as a link in 
the extension of Canadian Eailways to the- vast, prairies of the 
West, and, in this regard, Mr. Bridgland's proposed line would be 
quite out of the way. 

I fully concur with him in his views as to the expediency of 
immediate and energetic action in opening such communication as 
would attract the trade of the western territories to this country, 
and I believe the plan which I have proposed would have the 
desired effect. 

Eespectfully submitted, 

S. J. Dawson. 



THE 
RED RIVER COUNTRY., 

HUDSON'S BAY & NORTH-WEST 

TERRITORIES, 

CONSIDERED 

IN RELATION TO CANADA, 



WITTT THF LAST RETORT OF S. J. DAWSON, ESQUIRE, C. E., ON THE LINE OF ROUTE 
BETWEEN LAKE SUPERIOR AND THE RED RIVER SETTLEMENT. 



ILLUSTRATED BY A MAP. 



BY ALEX. J. Kl T SSELL, (\ E., 

INSPECTOR OF CLOWN' TIMBER AGENCIES, CANADA FAST AND WEST. 



OTTAWA: 

PUBLISHED BY G. E. UESBA11ATS 

1869. 



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